Editing Amphibian (section)

== Conservation ==
{{Main|Decline in amphibian populations}}

[[File:Bufo periglenes1.jpg|thumb|alt=Golden toad|The extinct [[golden toad]] (''Incilius periglenes''), last seen in 1989]]
Dramatic declines in amphibian populations, including population crashes and mass localized [[extinction]], have been noted since the late 1980s from locations all over the world, and amphibian declines are thus perceived to be one of the most critical threats to global [[biodiversity]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McCallum |first1=M. L. |year=2007 |title=Amphibian decline or extinction? Current declines dwarf background extinction rate |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=483–491 |doi=10.1670/0022-1511(2007)41[483:ADOECD]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=30162903 }}</ref> In 2004, the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) reported stating that currently birds,<ref>{{cite web|title=What does it mean to be human?|work=The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program |url=http://humanorigins.si.edu/human-characteristics/change|publisher=Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History|access-date=November 19, 2013|archive-date=November 22, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131122053213/http://humanorigins.si.edu/human-characteristics/change|url-status=live}}</ref> mammals, and amphibians extinction rates were at minimum 48 times greater than natural extinction rates—possibly 1,024 times higher. In 2006, there were believed to be 4,035 species of amphibians that depended on water at some stage during their life cycle. Of these, 1,356 (33.6%) were considered to be threatened and this figure is likely to be an underestimate because it excludes 1,427 species for which there was insufficient data to assess their status.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=461e58214aa54ad79382066ab829c05f |title=Number of Globally Threatened Amphibian Species by Freshwater Ecoregion |author1=Hoekstra, J. M. |author2=Molnar, J. L. |author3=Jennings, M. |author4=Revenga, C. |author5=Spalding, M. D. |author6=Boucher, T. M. |author7=Robertson, J. C. |author8=Heibel, T. J. |author9=Ellison, K. |year=2010 |work=The Atlas of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference |publisher=The Nature Conservancy |access-date=September 5, 2012 |archive-date=October 27, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027081225/http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=461e58214aa54ad79382066ab829c05f |url-status=live }}</ref> A number of causes are believed to be involved, including [[habitat destruction]] and modification, [[over-exploitation]], pollution, [[introduced species]], [[global warming]], [[endocrine-disrupting chemical|endocrine-disrupting pollutants]], destruction of the [[ozone layer]] ([[ultraviolet radiation]] has shown to be especially damaging to the skin, eyes, and eggs of amphibians), and diseases like [[chytridiomycosis]]. However, many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood, and are a topic of ongoing discussion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amphibians.org/ |title=Amphibian Specialist Group |publisher=IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group |access-date=March 30, 2012 |archive-date=February 22, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110222100746/http://www.amphibians.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Israel painted frog.JPG|thumb|left|alt=Hula painted frog|The [[Hula painted frog]] (''Discoglossus nigriventer'') was believed to be extinct but was rediscovered in 2011.]]

=== Food webs and predation ===
Any decline in amphibian numbers will affect the patterns of predation. The loss of carnivorous species near the top of the food chain will upset the delicate ecosystem balance and may cause dramatic increases in opportunistic species.

Predators that feed on amphibians are affected by their decline. The [[western terrestrial garter snake]] (''Thamnophis elegans'') in California is largely aquatic and depends heavily on two species of frog that are decreasing in numbers, the [[Yosemite toad]] (''Bufo canorus'') and the [[mountain yellow-legged frog]] (''Rana muscosa''), putting the snake's future at risk. If the snake were to become scarce, this would affect birds of prey and other predators that feed on it.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Jennings, W. Bryan |author2=Bradford, David F. |author3=Johnson, Dale F. |year=1992 |title=Dependence of the garter snake ''Thamnophis elegans'' on amphibians in the Sierra Nevada of California |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=503–505 |jstor=1565132 |doi=10.2307/1565132 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270389669 |access-date=November 10, 2016 |archive-date=October 4, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004050504/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270389669 |url-status=live }}</ref> Meanwhile, in the ponds and lakes, fewer frogs means fewer tadpoles. These normally play an important role in controlling the growth of algae and also forage on [[detritus]] that accumulates as sediment on the bottom. A reduction in the number of tadpoles may lead to an overgrowth of algae, resulting in depletion of oxygen in the water when the algae later die and decompose. Aquatic invertebrates and fish might then die and there would be unpredictable ecological consequences.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=249 }}

=== Pollution and pesticides ===

The decline in amphibian and reptile populations has led to an awareness of the effects of pesticides on reptiles and amphibians.<ref name="Hall-1992">{{Cite journal |last1=Hall |first1=J.R. |last2=Henry |first2=F.P.P. |date=1992 |title=Review: Assessing Effects of Pesticide on Amphibians and Reptiles: Status and needs. |journal=Herpetological Journal |volume=2 |pages=65–71}}</ref> In the past, the argument that amphibians or reptiles were more susceptible to any [[chemical]] contamination than any land aquatic vertebrate was not supported by research until recently.<ref name="Hall-1992"/> Amphibians and reptiles have complex life cycles, live in different [[climate]] and [[ecological]] zones, and are more vulnerable to chemical exposure. Certain pesticides, such as organophosphates, neonicotinoids, and carbamates, react via cholinesterase inhibition. Cholinesterase is an enzyme that causes the hydrolysis of acetylcholine, an excitatory neurotransmitter that is abundant in the nervous system. AChE inhibitors are either reversible or irreversible, and carbamates are safer than organophosphorus insecticides, which are more likely to cause cholinergic poisoning. Reptile exposure to an AChE inhibitory pesticide may result in disruption of neural function in reptiles. The buildup of these inhibitory effects on motor performance, such as food consumption and other activities.

=== Conservation and protection strategies ===
The Amphibian Specialist Group of the IUCN is spearheading efforts to implement a comprehensive global strategy for amphibian conservation.<ref name="AmphibianArk">{{cite web|url=http://www.iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/offices/asia/regional_activities/asian_amphibian_crisis/taking_action/amphibian_conservation_action_plan/ |title=Amphibian Conservation Action Plan |work=IUCN |access-date=March 30, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120427134336/http://www.iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/offices/asia/regional_activities/asian_amphibian_crisis/taking_action/amphibian_conservation_action_plan/ |archive-date=April 27, 2012 }}</ref> [[Amphibian Ark]] is an organization that was formed to implement the ex-situ conservation recommendations of this plan, and they have been working with zoos and aquaria around the world, encouraging them to create assurance colonies of threatened amphibians.<ref name="AmphibianArk" /> One such project is the Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project that built on existing conservation efforts in Panama to create a country-wide response to the threat of chytridiomycosis.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://amphibianrescue.org/?page_id=91 |title=Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project |publisher=Amphibian Ark |access-date=March 30, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100614024615/http://amphibianrescue.org/?page_id=91 |archive-date=June 14, 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Another measure would be to stop exploitation of frogs for human consumption. In the Middle East, a growing appetite for eating frog legs and the consequent gathering of them for food was already linked to an increase in [[mosquito]]es and thus has direct consequences for human health.<ref>{{Cite book
| last1 = Regier
| first1 = Henry A.
| last2 = Baskerville
| first2 = Gordon, L.
| title = Sustainable redevelopment of regional ecosystems degraded by exploitive development
| chapter = Sustainability Issues for Resource Managers
| publisher = DIANE Publishing
| pages = 36–38
| year = 1996
| isbn = 978-0-7881-4699-2
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=e66hatcSAsUC&q=Sustainable+redevelopment+of+regional+ecosystems+degraded+by&pg=PA21
| access-date = October 15, 2020
| archive-date = April 14, 2021
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210414083004/https://books.google.com/books?id=e66hatcSAsUC&q=Sustainable+redevelopment+of+regional+ecosystems+degraded+by&pg=PA21
| url-status = live
}}</ref>