Editing Yuan Shikai (section)

==Late Qing dynasty==
{{more citations needed|section|date=December 2019}}
[[File:Yuan Shikai as governor of shandong.jpg|left|thumb|Yuan Shikai as Governor of Shandong]]
[[File:Chinese generals 1910.jpg|left|thumb|Yuan Shikai and [[Tieliang]]（铁良) in 1906<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.orangenews.hk/author/1141924/伯爵茶跡-北洋元首的文化背景.shtml |title=伯爵茶跡｜北洋元首的文化背景 |date=25 March 2022 }}Per [[Orange News]] (in Chinese)</ref>]]
After returning to China, Yuan was appointed to a post in [[Zhejiang]], but he did not take it up.{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=80}} The [[First Sino-Japanese War]] officially began on 1 August 1894 with Japan declaring war on China,{{sfn|Paine|2003|page=135}} and he spent the conflict assisting with the provision of supplies to the Chinese forces in Korea and northeast China, at the request of Li Hongzhang.{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=80}} At this point Yuan also had a positive reputation outside of China, due to his actions in Korea. [[Prime Minister of Japan|Japanese Prime Minister]] [[Itō Hirobumi]] had asked Li Hongzhang about Yuan during their negotiations at the end of the war, and remarked that he was talented.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=58}} Shortly before the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]] ended the Sino-Japanese war in April 1895, [[U.S. Secretary of State]] [[John W. Foster]] attempted to convince Yuan to lead a military coup against the Qing dynasty.{{sfn|Crean|2024|page=44}} 

After China's best force, the Huai Army, had been defeated in the war with Japan, the Qing imperial court was willing to create units that were organized entirely along the European model.{{sfn|McCord|1993|pages=33–34}} There were increasing calls after the war to reorganize the Chinese armed forces.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=58}} Around this time, Yuan had the confidence of senior Qing officials, including [[Ronglu]], the Minister of War, and [[Yikuang, Prince Qing]].{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=80}}{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=75}} Several high-ranking officials, including Yikuang, [[Weng Tonghe]], and [[Wang Wenshao]], signed [[memorial to the throne|memorials to the throne]] in the fall of 1895 asking the [[Guangxu Emperor]] to appoint Yuan to oversee military modernization.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=58}} He was known for having organized Korean forces, defeating the Japanese during the 1880s, and displaying management skills as a logistics officer during the most recent war.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=59}} After a private meeting with the emperor on 2 August 1895 he was made a member of the council for military issues.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=59}} Within days, he presented the emperor with a lengthy document on his proposal for creating a Western-style army under centralized Qing control.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=60}} On 8 December 1895 Yuan was appointed as the commander of the Newly Created Army, which was created on the basis of the Pacification Army that had been raised during the war at the Huai Army training camp in [[Xiaozhan]], near [[Tianjin]].{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=81}}{{sfn|Powell|1955|pages=75–76}} 

Yuan immediately set about organizing the [[brigade]]-sized Newly Created Army,{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=76}} and spent the next three years{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=57}} developing a force at Xiaozhan that was different from any previous Chinese military, being not only equipped but also organized along the lines of the [[Imperial German Army|German Army]], and funded by the central government. Particular attention was given to the recruitment and training of the soldiers and officers. It was organized into combat arms and several technical branches, and a [[Staff (military)|staff officer system]] was also set up with German assistance.{{sfn|McCord|1993|pages=33–34}}{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=77}} The unit was equipped with German weapons and supplies.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=63}} The Newly Created Army became the basis for his rise to power,{{sfn|Shan|2018|pages=56–57}} and in addition to Yuan, the brigade's officer corps included many other future leaders, including several [[President of the Republic of China|presidents of the Republic of China]] and provincial governors.{{sfn|Powell|1955|pages=79–80}} Already in 1896, Yuan's troops received praise from Ronglu, and in July 1897 Yuan was made the provincial judge of Zhili.{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=81}} Between 1895 and 1898 the emperor, being impressed with his efforts at modernizing the military, had several meetings with Yuan, which was rare for an official of his level.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=80}} Yuan was seen as a member of the reform movement and supported it, though he was focused on his military service and was not involved in their political machinations.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=80}}{{sfn|Shan|2018|pages=72–73}} At the same Yuan maintained good relations with the conservative Manchu princes, notably Ronglu.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=81}}

The Qing Court at the time was divided between progressives under the leadership of the [[Guangxu Emperor]] and conservatives under [[Empress Dowager Cixi]],{{sfn|Shan|2018|pages=72–73}} who had withdrawn to her Summer Palace and allowed the emperor to lead the government. In June 1898 the Guangxu Emperor launched the [[Hundred Days' Reform]] and started issuing dozens of edicts to make changes to China's culture, economy, military, and education system, with the support of reform-minded officials like [[Kang Youwei]].{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=81}} He encountered a lot of resistance from the conservative nobles, who wanted Cixi to return, and his supporters, having no military power of their own, decided to ask Yuan Shikai for help.{{sfn|Shan|2018|pages=81–84}} Yuan's role in these events continues to be debated by historians.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=80}} The most widely held interpretation has been that the reform advocate [[Tan Sitong]] met with Yuan Shikai on 18 September 1898 and asked Yuan to use his troops to kill the conservatives and to arrest Cixi. Yuan betrayed them by giving this information to Ronglu on the evening of 20 September, and based on this, the next morning the conservatives launched a coup d'état that ended the Hundred Days' Reform and placed the Guangxu Emperor into confinement. Yuan's conversation with Ronglu has been accepted as the cause of the coup. However, more recently available evidence has led some historians to conclude that the coup was already being planned by the time Yuan had his conversation with Ronglu, and he was not the reason why it occurred. Yuan most likely knew that his troops would be no match for the larger forces around Beijing and wanted to protect his own position. His report to Ronglu was later used by Cixi to purge many reformers from the government.{{sfn|Shan|2018|pages=81–84}}

Yuan was appointed as acting [[Viceroy of Zhili]] and [[Beiyang]] Trade Minister for ten days after the coup, which may have been an effort by the conservative faction to keep him away from his troops at Xiaozhan. Ronglu saw Yuan Shikai as reliable subordinate and his support allowed Yuan to not be punished, unlike the other reformers.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=85}} Later that year several military units in northern China were placed under Ronglu's command as the [[Wuwei Corps]], which also called the Guards Army. Yuan's Newly Created Army became the Right Division of the Guard Army. It was seen as the best trained and equipped among the five divisions of the army,{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=81}} and his success opened the way for his rise to the top in both military and political sectors.<ref>Hong Zhang, "Yuan Shikai and the Significance of his Troop Training at Xiaozhan, Tianjin, 1895–1899." ''Chinese Historical Review'' 26.1 (2019): 37–54.</ref> During 1899 he wrote several proposals to the Qing court in military reform. In June 1899, he was made the junior vice president of the [[Ministry of Works (imperial China)|Ministry of Works]] by Empress Dowager Cixi. As tensions increased between the locals and foreigners in the province of [[Shandong]], beginning the [[Boxer Rebellion]], Yuan was sent there in December 1899 as the acting provincial governor. He was confirmed as governor in March 1900.{{sfn|Powell|1955|pages=122–123}} 

During his three-year tenure the Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901) erupted; Yuan ensured the suppression of Boxers in the province, though his troops took no active part outside Shandong itself. Yuan took the side of the pro-foreign faction in the imperial court. He refused to side with the Boxers and attack the [[Eight-Nation Alliance]] forces, joining with other Chinese governors who commanded substantial modernized armies like [[Zhang Zhidong]] not participating in the Boxer Rebellion. He and Zhang ignored Cixi's declaration of war against the foreign powers and continued to suppress the Boxers. This clique was known as the [[Mutual Defence Pact of Southeast China]].{{sfn|Powell|1955|pages=122–123}}<ref name="Luo2015">{{cite book |first=Zhitian |last = Luo |title = Inheritance within Rupture: Culture and Scholarship in Early Twentieth Century China |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=avlyBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 |date= 2015|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-28766-2|pages=19–}}</ref> In addition to suppressing the Boxers in Shandong, Yuan and his army (the Right Division) also helped the Eight-Nation Alliance suppress them in Zhili after [[Battle of Peking (1900)|captured Peking]] in August 1900. Yuan Shikai's forces massacred tens of thousands of people in their anti-Boxer campaign in Zhili.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/warriorsofrising00edge/page/94 Edgerton, ''Warriors of the Rising Sun: A History of the Japanese Military'', p. 94]</ref> Yuan operated out of [[Baoding]] during the campaign, which ended in 1902.{{sfn|Ch'en|1961|pages=76–77}} The Boxer Rebellion decimated the other divisions of the Guards Army, and after it was over the Qing court wanted rebuild the defenses of the Beijing area, appointing Yuan to oversee this task.{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=126}} In late 1901 he was made the acting Viceroy of Zhili and Beiyang Trade Minister after the death of Li Hongzhang, so he was also in charge of the foreign and military affairs of northern China. These appointments to powerful positions in the capital region showed the trust that the empress dowager had in Yuan Shikai.{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=138}} He was confirmed as viceroy in June 1902.{{sfn|Bonavia|1995|page=35}}{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=138}} Yuan was given several other offices around that time, including as director of the northern railways and director of telegraphs.{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=138}}

[[File:Yuan Shikai in uniform.jpg|thumb|Yuan Shikai in Qing dynasty uniform, 1912]]
Having gained powerful allies that included Empress Dowager Cixi, and being appointed as the Viceroy of Zhili and Beiyang Trade Minister, Yuan was in a position that allowed him to expand his army and increase its funding.{{sfn|Powell|1955|pages=138–139}} It was at this time that Yuan established the [[Beiyang Army]],{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=140}} with the creation of the Left Division of the Beiyang Standing Army in October 1902.{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=143}} In December 1902 he was also ordered to train several thousand [[Eight Banners|Manchu Bannermen]], and these later became the 1st Division of the Beiyang Army, while the Left Division was renamed the 2nd Division.{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=143}} It was meant to become the core of a Chinese [[regular army]],{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=140}} and although Yuan had a lot of influence over it, the central government had administrative control and provided the army's funding.{{sfn|Mackinnon|1973|page=406}} In 1904 Yuan used the [[Russo-Japanese War]] to convince Cixi to authorize the creation of more divisions. Because of this the Beiyang Army reached a strength of 60,000 men.{{sfn|Mackinnon|1973|page=406}} In mid-1902 he established a military staff to assist him in his role as Beiyang Army commander, and its two most prominent members were [[Feng Guozhang]] and [[Duan Qirui]].{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=141}} The "Beiyang clique" became the origin of the majority of warlords in northern China during the warlord period in the 1910s and 1920s.{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=140}} As one historian wrote, "the [Beiyang] Army was the most significant military development in China between the [Xiang] and Huai Armies which suppressed the Taiping and [Nian] rebellions in the 1860's and the [[National Revolutionary Army|army]] that [[Chiang Kai-shek]] raised and employed in the [[Northern Expedition|northern expedition]] of 1926-27."{{sfn|Mackinnon|1973|page=405}}

In 1905, acting on Yuan's advice, Dowager-Empress Cixi issued a decree ending the traditional Confucian examination system that was formalized in 1906. She ordered the Ministry of Education to implement a system of primary and secondary schools and universities with state-mandated curriculum, modelled after the educational system of [[Meiji period|Meiji-era]] Japan. On 27 August 1908, the Qing court promulgated "Principles for a Constitution", which Yuan helped to draft. This document called for a [[constitutional government]] with a strong monarchy (modelled after Meiji Japan and Bismarck's Germany), with a constitution to be issued by 1916 and an elected parliament by 1917.<ref>Tanner, Harold Miles. ''China: A History''. Hackett Publishing (2009) {{ISBN|0872209156}} pp.&nbsp;408–410.</ref>

{{Quote box
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|quote = In the hunting-park, three miles to the south of Peking, is quartered the Sixth Division, which supplies the Guards for the Imperial Palace, consisting of a battalion of infantry and a squadron of cavalry. With this Division Yuan Shi Kai retains twenty-six modified Krupp guns, which are the best of his artillery arm, and excel any guns possessed by the foreign legations in Peking.

The Manchu Division moves with the Court and is the pride of the modern army.

By his strategic disposition Yuan Shi Kai completely controls all the approaches to the capital, and holds a force which he may utilize either to protect the Court from threatened attack or to crush the Emperor should he himself desire to assume Imperial power. Contrary to treaty stipulations made at the settlement of the Boxer trouble, the Chinese have been permitted to build a great tower over the Chien Men, or central southern gate, which commands the foreign legations and governs the Forbidden City. In the threatening condition of Chinese affairs it might be assumed that this structure had been undermined by the foreign community, but this has not been done, and if trouble again arise in Peking the fate of the legations will depend upon the success of the first assault which will be necessary to take it. The foreign legations are as much in the power of Yuan Shi Kai's troops in 1907 as they were at the mercy of the Chinese rabble in 1900.

The ultimate purpose of the equipped and disciplined troops is locked in the breast of the Viceroy of Chihli. Yuan Shi Kai's yamen in Tientsin is connected by telegraph and telephone with the Imperial palaces and with the various barracks of his troops. In a field a couple of hundred yards away is the long pole of a wireless telegraph station, from which he can send the message that any day may set all China ablaze.
|source = ''To-morrow in the East'', Douglas Story, pp.&nbsp;224–226.<ref>{{cite book |title = To-morrow in the East |first= Douglas |last = Story |year = 1907 |publisher= G. Bell & Sons |url = https://archive.org/details/tomorrowineast02storgoog |pages = [https://archive.org/details/tomorrowineast02storgoog/page/n240 224]–226 |access-date= 1 April 2013 |ref = {{harvid|}} }}</ref>
}}

Yuan Shikai's Han-dominated New Army was primarily responsible for the defence of Beijing, as most of the modernized Eight Banner divisions were destroyed in the Boxer Rebellion and the new modernized Banner forces were token in nature.

The Empress Dowager and the Guangxu Emperor died within a day of each other in November 1908.<ref name="Busky" /> Sources indicate that the will of the emperor ordered Yuan's execution. Nonetheless, he avoided death. In January 1909, he was relieved of all his posts by the regent, [[Zaifeng, Prince Chun|Prince Chun]]. The public reason for Yuan's resignation was that he was returning to his home in the village of Huanshang ({{lang|zh|洹上村}}), the [[prefecture-level city]] of [[Anyang]], due to a foot disease.

During his three years of effective exile, Yuan kept contact with his close allies, including [[Duan Qirui]], who reported to him regularly about army proceedings. Yuan had arranged for the marriage of his niece (whom he had adopted) to Duan as a means to consolidate power. The loyalty of the Beiyang Army was still undoubtedly behind him. Having this strategic military support, Yuan held the balance of power between various revolutionaries (like [[Sun Yat-sen]]) and the Qing court. Both wanted Yuan on their side.