Editing Water buffalo (section)

==Ecology and behavior==

[[File:Water buffalo.jpg|thumb|In the water]]

[[File:Flickr - Rainbirder - Water Buffalo.jpg|thumb|Wallowing in mud]]

River buffaloes prefer deep water. Swamp buffaloes prefer to [[Wallowing in animals|wallow]] in mudholes, which they make with their horns. During wallowing, they acquire a thick coating of mud.<ref name= Cockrill1977/> Both are well-adapted to a hot and humid climate with temperatures ranging from {{convert|0|C|F|abbr=on}} in the winter to {{convert|30|C|F|abbr=on}} and greater in the summer. Water availability is important in hot climates, since they need wallows, rivers, or splashing water to assist in [[thermoregulation]]. Some water buffalo [[breed]]s are adapted to [[Saline water|saline]] seaside shores and [[Soil salinity|saline sandy terrain]].<ref name=Borghese2005>Borghese, A., Mazzi, M. (2005). ''Buffalo Population and Strategies in the World''. Pages 1–39 in Borghese, A. (ed.) ''Buffalo Production and Research''. REU Technical Series 67. Inter-regional Cooperative Research Network on Buffalo, FAO Regional Office for Europe, Rome.</ref>

===Diet===

Water buffaloes thrive on many [[aquatic plant]]s. During floods, they graze submerged, raising their heads above the water and carrying quantities of edible plants. Water buffaloes eat [[Reed (plant)|reeds]], ''[[Arundo donax]]'', a kind of [[Cyperaceae]], ''[[Eichhornia crassipes]]'', and [[Juncaceae]]. Some of these plants are of great value to local peoples. Others, such as ''E. crassipes'' and ''A. donax'', are a major problem in some tropical valleys and by eating them, the water buffaloes may help control these invasive plants.

Green fodders are widely used for intensive milk production and for fattening. Many fodder crops are conserved as hay, chaffed, or pulped. Fodders include [[alfalfa]], the leaves, stems or trimmings of banana, [[cassava]], [[Mangelwurzel]], [[esparto]], ''[[Leucaena leucocephala]]'' and [[kenaf]], maize, [[oat]]s, ''[[Pandanus]]'', peanut, [[sorghum]], [[soybean]], [[sugarcane]], [[bagasse]], and [[turnip]]s. [[Citrus]] pulp and [[pineapple]] wastes have been fed safely to buffalo. In Egypt, whole sun-dried [[Date palm|dates]] are fed to milk buffalo up to 25% of the standard feed mixture.<ref name= Cockrill1977/>

===Reproduction===

[[File:Water buffalo calf, India.jpg|thumb|Calf, India]]

Swamp buffaloes generally become [[Reproduction|reproductive]] at an older age than river breeds. Young males in Egypt, India, and Pakistan are first mated around 3.0–3.5 years of age, but in Italy, they may be used as early as 2 years of age. Successful mating behaviour may continue until the animal is 12 years or even older. A good river buffalo male can impregnate 100 females in a year. A strong seasonal influence on [[mating]] occurs. Heat stress reduces [[libido]].<ref name= Cockrill1977/>

Although water buffaloes are polyoestrous, their reproductive efficiency shows wide variation throughout the year. The cows exhibit a distinct seasonal change in displaying [[oestrus]], [[Conception (biology)|conception]] rate, and [[Calf (animal)|calving]] rate.<ref name=Barile2005>Barile, V. L. (2005). "Reproductive Efficiency in Female Buffaloes". pp. 77–108 in Borghese, A. (ed.) [http://www.cienciaanimal.ufpa.br/CA_selecao/M/2010/biblio/Prod/complem/Borghese_2005.pdf ''Buffalo Production and Research''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020232147/http://www.cienciaanimal.ufpa.br/CA_selecao/M/2010/biblio/Prod/complem/Borghese_2005.pdf |date=20 October 2013 }}. REU Technical Series 67. Inter-regional Cooperative Research Network on Buffalo, FAO Regional Office for Europe, Rome.</ref> The age at the first oestrus of [[Cattle#Terminology|heifer]]s varies between breeds from 13 to 33 months, but mating at the first oestrus is often infertile and usually deferred until they are 3 years old. [[Gestation]] lasts from 281 to 334 days, but most reports give a range between 300 and 320 days. Swamp buffaloes carry their calves for one or two weeks longer than river buffaloes. Finding water buffaloes that continue to work well at the age of 30 is not uncommon, and instances of a working life of 40 years have been recorded.<ref name= Cockrill1977/>