Editing University of Paris (section)

===12th century: Organisation===
Three schools were especially famous in Paris: the ''palatine or palace school'', the ''school of Notre-Dame'', and that of [[Sainte-Geneviève Abbey]]. The latter two, although ancient, were initially eclipsed by the palatine school, until the decline of royalty brought about its decline.

The first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève was [[Hubold]], who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at [[Liège]], he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the eleventh century include Lambert, disciple of [[Fulbert of Chartres]]; [[Drogo of Paris]]; [[Manegold of Germany]]; and [[Anselm of Laon]]. These two schools attracted scholars from every country and produced many illustrious men, among whom were: [[Stanislaus of Szczepanów|St. Stanislaus of Szczepanów]], Bishop of Kraków; [[Gebbard, Archbishop of Salzburg]]; [[Stephen Harding|St. Stephen, third Abbot of Cîteaux]]; [[Robert d'Arbrissel]], founder of the [[Abbey of Fontevrault]] etc. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were [[William of Champeaux]], [[Abélard]], and [[Peter Lombard]].

Humanistic instruction comprised [[grammar]], [[rhetoric]], [[dialectics]], [[arithmetic]], [[geometry]], music, and [[astronomy]] ([[trivium (education)|trivium]] and [[quadrivium]]). To the higher instruction belonged [[dogmatic theology|dogmatic]] and [[moral theology]], whose source was the Scriptures and the Patristic Fathers. It was completed by the study of [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Canon law]]. The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève. It was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor. Its most famous professors are [[Hugh of St. Victor]] and [[Richard of St. Victor]].

The plan of studies expanded in the schools of Paris, as it did elsewhere. A [[Bologna|Bolognese]] compendium of canon law called the {{lang|la|[[Decretum Gratiani]]}} brought about a division of the theology department. Hitherto the discipline of the Church had not been separate from so-called theology; they were studied together under the same professor. But this vast collection necessitated a special course, which was undertaken first at Bologna, where [[Roman law]] was taught. In France, first [[Orléans]] and then Paris erected chairs of canon law. Before the end of the twelfth century, the [[Decretal]]s of [[Gerard La Pucelle]], [[Mathieu d'Angers]], and [[Anselm of Paris|Anselm (or Anselle) of Paris]], were added to the Decretum Gratiani. However, [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] was not included at Paris. In the twelfth century, medicine began to be publicly taught at Paris: the first professor of medicine in Paris records is Hugo, ''physicus excellens qui quadrivium docuit''.

Professors were required to have measurable knowledge and be appointed by the university. Applicants had to be assessed by [[Test (assessment)|examination]]; if successful, the examiner, who was the head of the school, and known as ''scholasticus'', ''capiscol'', and ''chancellor,'' appointed an individual to teach. This was called the [[licence]] or faculty to teach. The licence had to be granted freely. No one could teach without it; on the other hand, the examiner could not refuse to award it when the applicant deserved it.
[[File:Lasorbonne photo2.jpg|thumb]]

The school of Saint-Victor, under the abbey, conferred the licence in its own right; the school of Notre-Dame depended on the diocese, that of Ste-Geneviève on the abbey or chapter. The diocese and the abbey or chapter, through their [[Chancellor (ecclesiastical)|chancellor]], gave professorial investiture in their respective territories where they had jurisdiction. Besides Notre-Dame, Ste-Geneviève, and Saint-Victor, there were several schools on the "Island" and on the "Mount". "Whoever", says [[Jean-Baptiste Louis Crévier|Crevier]] "had the right to teach might open a school where he pleased, provided it was not in the vicinity of a principal school." Thus [[Adam de Parvo Ponte|a certain Adam]], who was of English origin, kept his "near the [[Petit Pont]]"; another Adam, Parisian by birth, "taught at the [[Grand Pont]] which is called the [[Pont-au-Change]]" (''Hist. de l'Univers. de Paris,'' I, 272).

The number of students in the school of the capital grew constantly, so that lodgings were insufficient. French students included [[princes of the blood]], sons of the nobility, and ranking gentry. The courses at Paris were considered so necessary as a completion of studies that many foreigners flocked to them. Popes [[Pope Celestine II|Celestine II]], [[Pope Adrian IV|Adrian IV]] and [[Pope Innocent III|Innocent III]] studied at Paris, and [[Pope Alexander III|Alexander III]] sent his nephews there. Noted German and English students included [[Otto of Freising]]en, [[Cardinal Conrad, Archbishop of Mainz]], [[Thomas Becket|St. Thomas of Canterbury]], and [[John of Salisbury]]; while Ste-Geneviève became practically the seminary for [[Denmark]]. The chroniclers of the time called Paris the city of letters par excellence, placing it above [[Athens]], [[Alexandria]], Rome, and other cities: "At that time, there flourished at Paris philosophy and all branches of learning, and there the seven arts were studied and held in such esteem as they never were at Athens, Egypt, Rome, or elsewhere in the world." ("Les gestes de Philippe-Auguste"). Poets extolled the university in their verses, comparing it to all that was greatest, noblest, and most valuable in the world.
[[File:Sorbona in snow.jpg|thumb|upright|The Sorbonne covered by snow.]]

To allow poor students to study the first college [[Collège des Dix-Huit|des dix-Huit]] was founded by a knight returning from Jerusalem called Josse of London for 18 scholars who received lodgings and 12 pence or denarii a month.<ref name="Madrasa">{{Cite book|title=Warriors of the Cloisters: The Central Asian Origins of Science in the Medieval World..|last=Beckwith|first=CI|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780691155319|url=https://princeton.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.23943/princeton/9780691155319.001.0001/upso-9780691155319-appendix-3|doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691155319.001.0001|ref=Madrasa}}</ref>

As the university developed, it became more institutionalized. First, the professors formed an association, for according to [[Matthew Paris]], [[John of Celles]], twenty-first Abbot of [[St Albans Abbey|St Albans]], England, was admitted as a member of the teaching corps of Paris after he had followed the courses (''Vita Joannis I, XXI, abbat. S. Alban''). The masters, as well as the students, were divided according to national origin,. Alban wrote that [[Henry II of England|Henry II, King of England]], in his difficulties with St. Thomas of Canterbury, wanted to submit his cause to a tribunal composed of professors of Paris, chosen from various provinces (Hist. major, Henry II, to end of 1169). This was likely the start of the division according to "nations," which was later to play an important part in the university. Celestine III ruled that both professors and students had the privilege of being subject only to the ecclesiastical courts, not to civil courts.

The three schools: Notre-Dame, Sainte-Geneviève, and Saint-Victor, may be regarded as the triple cradle of the ''Universitas scholarium'', which included masters and students; hence the name ''University''. [[Henry Denifle]] and some others hold that this honour is exclusive to the school of Notre-Dame (Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis), but the reasons do not seem convincing. He excludes Saint-Victor because, at the request of the abbot and the religious of Saint-Victor, Gregory IX in 1237 authorized them to resume the interrupted teaching of theology. But the university was largely founded about 1208, as is shown by a Bull of Innocent III. Consequently, the schools of Saint-Victor might well have contributed to its formation. Secondly, Denifle excludes the schools of Ste-Geneviève because there had been no interruption in the teaching of the liberal arts. This is debatable and through the period, theology was taught. The chancellor of Ste-Geneviève continued to give degrees in arts, something he would have ceased if his abbey had no part in the university organization.