Editing Trench warfare (section)

== Construction ==
[[File:Trench construction diagram 1914.png|thumb|Trench construction diagram from a 1914 British infantry manual]]
[[File:Indian infantry digging trenches Fauquissart, France (Photo 24-299).jpg|thumb|[[British Raj|Indian]] infantry digging trenches, [[Fauquissart]], France, 9 August 1915.]]
[[File:Trench warfare.png|thumb|Soldiers training in trench warfare, with well-defined fire bays connected by offset traverse trenches, with zigzag communication trenches leading to the rear area]]
{{Blockquote
| Trenches were longer, deeper, and better defended by steel, concrete, and barbed wire than ever before. They were far stronger and more effective than chains of forts, for they formed a continuous network, sometimes with four or five parallel lines linked by interfacings. They were dug far below the surface of the earth out of reach of the heaviest artillery....Grand battles with the old maneuvers were out of the question. Only by bombardment, sapping, and assault could the enemy be shaken, and such operations had to be conducted on an immense scale to produce appreciable results. Indeed, it is questionable whether the German lines in France could ever have been broken if the Germans had not wasted their resources in unsuccessful assaults, and the blockade by sea had not gradually cut off their supplies. In such warfare no single general could strike a blow that would make him immortal; the "glory of fighting" sank down into the dirt and mire of trenches and dugouts.
| [[James Harvey Robinson]] and [[Charles A. Beard]]
| The Development Of Modern Europe Volume II The Merging Of European Into World History<ref>[https://archive.org/details/developmentofmod007381mbp James Harvey Robinson and Charles A. Beard, ''The Development Of Modern Europe Volume II The Merging Of European Into World History'' (1930)  pp 324–25]</ref>
}}

Early World War I trenches were simple. They lacked [[Traverse (trench warfare)|traverses]], and according to pre-war doctrine were to be packed with men fighting shoulder to shoulder. This doctrine led to heavy casualties from artillery fire. This vulnerability, and the length of the front to be defended, soon led to frontline trenches being held by fewer men. The defenders augmented the trenches themselves with barbed wire strung in front to impede movement; wiring parties went out every night to repair and improve these forward defences.{{sfn|Griffith|2004|pp=10–11}}

The small, improvised trenches of the first few months grew deeper and more complex, gradually becoming vast areas of interlocking defensive works. They resisted both artillery bombardment and mass infantry assault. Shell-proof dugouts became a high priority.{{sfn|Griffith|2004|p=11}}
[[File:Энякяинен 5.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A trench of the Änäkäinen fortification in [[Lieksa]], [[Finland]]]]
A well-developed trench had to be at least {{convert|2.5|m|ft|abbr=on|0}} deep to allow men to walk upright and still be protected.

There were three standard ways to dig a trench: entrenching, sapping, and [[Tunnel warfare|tunneling]]. Entrenching, where a man would stand on the surface and dig downwards, was most efficient, as it allowed a large digging party to dig the full length of the trench simultaneously. However, entrenching left the diggers exposed above ground and hence could only be carried out when free of observation, such as in a rear area or at night. [[Sapping]] involved extending the trench by digging away at the end face. The diggers were not exposed, but only one or two men could work on the trench at a time. Tunnelling was like sapping except that a "roof" of soil was left in place while the trench line was established and then removed when the trench was ready to be occupied. The guidelines for British trench construction stated that it would take 450 men 6 hours at night to complete {{convert|250|m|yd|abbr=on}} of front-line trench system. Thereafter, the trench would require constant maintenance to prevent deterioration caused by weather or shelling.

Trenchmen were a specialized unit of trench excavators and repairmen. They usually dug or repaired in groups of four with an escort of two armed soldiers. Trenchmen were armed with one [[M1911 pistol|1911 semi-automatic pistol]], and were only utilized when either a new trench needed to be dug or expanded quickly, or when a trench was destroyed by artillery fire. Trenchmen were trained to dig with incredible speed; in a dig of three to six hours they could accomplish what would take a normal group of frontline infantry soldiers around two days. Trenchmen were usually looked down upon by fellow soldiers because they did not fight. They were usually called cowards because if they were attacked while digging, they would abandon the post and flee to safety. They were instructed to do this though because through the war there were only around 1,100 trained trenchmen. They were highly valued only by officers higher on the chain of command.

=== Components ===
[[File:Breastwork trench at Armentieres 1916.jpg|thumb|left|Breastwork "trench", Armentières, 1916]]

The banked earth on the lip of the trench facing the enemy was called the [[parapet]] and had a fire step. The embanked rear lip of the trench was called the [[parados]], which protected the soldier's back from shells falling behind the trench. The sides of the trench were often revetted with [[sandbag]]s, [[wire mesh]], wooden frames and sometimes roofs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trench Warfare Life in the trenches,1914-1918 |url=https://www.theworldwar.org/learn/about-wwi/trench-warfare |access-date=April 15, 2024 |website=The World War}}</ref> The floor of the trench was usually covered by wooden [[duckboards]]. In later designs the floor might be raised on a wooden frame to provide a drainage channel underneath. Due to the substantial casualties taken from indirect fire, some trenches were reinforced with corrugated metal roofs over the top as an improvised defence from shrapnel.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.history-of-american-wars.com/world-war-1-trenches.html/ |title=World War 1 Trenches, 1914-1918 |access-date=11 March 2023 |archive-date=11 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311195637/http://www.history-of-american-wars.com/world-war-1-trenches.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The static movement of trench warfare and a need for protection from [[sniper]]s created a requirement for [[Loophole (firearm)|loopholes]] both for discharging firearms and for observation.<ref name="One">[https://ww1revisited.com/2014/03/16/trench-loopholes-le-linge/ Trench Loopholes, Le Linge]</ref> Often a steel plate was used with a "keyhole", which had a rotating piece to cover the loophole when not in use.<ref name="One" /> German snipers used armour-piercing bullets that allowed them to penetrate loopholes. Another means to see over the parapet was the [[Periscope|trench periscope]] – in its simplest form, just a stick with two angled pieces of mirror at the top and bottom. A number of armies made use of the [[periscope rifle]], which enabled soldiers to snipe at the enemy without exposing themselves over the parapet, although at the cost of reduced shooting accuracy. The device is most associated with Australian and New Zealand troops at Gallipoli, where the [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]] held the high ground.

[[File:Periscope rifle Gallipoli 1915.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|[[Australian light horse]]man using a [[periscope rifle]], Gallipoli 1915]]
[[Dugout (military)|Dugouts]] of varying degrees of comfort were built in the rear of the support trench. British dugouts were usually {{convert|2.5|to|5|m|ft|abbr=on|0}} deep. The Germans, who had based their knowledge on studies of the [[Russo-Japanese War]],<ref name="Keegan, p. 179">{{harvnb|Keegan|1999|p=179}}.</ref> made something of a science out of designing and constructing defensive works. They used reinforced concrete to construct deep, shell-proof, ventilated dugouts, as well as strategic strongpoints. German dugouts were typically much deeper, usually a minimum of {{convert|12|ft|m|abbr=on|order=flip|0}} deep and sometimes dug three stories down, with concrete staircases to reach the upper levels.

=== Layout ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=November 2024}}
Trenches were never straight but were dug in a [[zigzag]]ging or stepped pattern, with all straight sections generally kept less than ten yards. Later, this evolved to have the combat trenches broken into distinct [[wikt:fire bay|fire bay]]s connected by traverses. While this isolated the view of friendly soldiers along their own trench, this ensured the entire trench could not be [[Enfilade and defilade|enfiladed]] if the enemy gained access at any one point; or if a bomb, grenade, or shell landed in the trench, the blast could not travel far.

[[File:Aerial view Loos-Hulluch trench system July 1917.jpg|thumb|left|Aerial view of opposing trench lines between Loos and Hulluch, July 1917. German trenches at the right and bottom, British at the top-left.]]
Very early in the war, British defensive doctrine suggested a main trench system of three parallel lines, interconnected by communications trenches. The point at which a communications trench intersected the front trench was of critical importance, and it was usually heavily fortified. The front trench was lightly garrisoned and typically occupied in force only during "stand to" at dawn and dusk. Between {{convert|70|and|100|yd|m|abbr=on|order=flip|round=5}} behind the front trench was located the support (or "travel") trench, to which the garrison would retreat when the front trench was bombarded.

Between {{convert|100|and|300|yd|m|order=flip|-1}} further to the rear was located the third reserve trench, where the reserve troops could amass for a counter-attack if the front trenches were captured. This defensive layout was soon rendered obsolete as the power of artillery grew; however, in certain sectors of the front, the support trench was maintained as a decoy to attract the enemy bombardment away from the front and reserve lines. Fires were lit in the support line to make it appear inhabited and any damage done immediately repaired.

Temporary trenches were also built. When a major attack was planned, assembly trenches would be dug near the front trench. These were used to provide a sheltered place for the waves of attacking troops who would follow the first waves leaving from the front trench. "Saps" were temporary, unmanned, often dead-end utility trenches dug out into no-man's land. They fulfilled a variety of purposes, such as connecting the front trench to a listening post close to the enemy wire or providing an advance "jumping-off" line for a surprise attack. When one side's front line bulged towards the opposition, a [[Salient (military)|salient]] was formed. The concave trench line facing the salient was called a "re-entrant." Large salients were perilous for their occupants because they could be assailed from three sides.

Behind the front system of trenches there were usually at least two more partially prepared trench systems, kilometres to the rear, ready to be occupied in the event of a retreat. The Germans often prepared multiple redundant trench systems; in 1916 their [[Battle of the Somme|Somme]] front featured two complete trench systems, one kilometre apart, with a third partially completed system a further kilometre behind. This duplication made a decisive breakthrough virtually impossible. In the event that a section of the first trench system was captured, a "switch" trench would be dug to connect the second trench system to the still-held section of the first.

=== Wire ===
[[File:The people's war book; history, cyclopaedia and chronology of the great world war (1919) (14781623592).jpg|thumb|left|American soldiers struggle to pass multiple lines of barbed wire]]

The use of lines of [[barbed wire]], [[razor wire]], and other [[wire obstacle]]s, in belts {{convert|15|m|ft|abbr=on}} deep or more, is effective in stalling infantry travelling across the battlefield. Although the barbs or razors might cause minor injuries, the purpose was to entangle the limbs of enemy soldiers, forcing them to stop and methodically pull or work the wire off, likely taking several seconds, or even longer. This is deadly when the wire is emplaced at points of maximum exposure to concentrated enemy firepower, in plain sight of enemy fire bays and machine guns. The combination of wire and firepower was the cause of most failed attacks in trench warfare and their very high casualties. [[Liddell Hart]] identified barbed wire and the machine gun as the elements that had to be broken to regain a mobile battlefield.

A basic wire line could be created by draping several strands of barbed wire between wooden posts driven into the ground. Loose lines of wire can be more effective in entangling than tight ones, and it was common to use the coils of barbed wire as delivered only partially stretched out, called [[concertina wire]]. Placing and repairing wire in [[no man's land]] relied on stealth, usually done at night by special [[Wiring party|wiring parties]], who could also be tasked with secretly sabotaging enemy wires. The [[screw picket]], invented by the [[German Empire|Germans]] and later adopted by the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] during the war, was quieter than driving stakes. Wire often stretched the entire length of a battlefield's trench line, in multiple lines, sometimes covering a depth {{convert|30|m|ft|-1}} or more.

Methods to defeat it were rudimentary. Prolonged artillery bombardment could damage them, but not reliably. The first soldier meeting the wire could jump onto the top of it, hopefully depressing it enough for those that followed to get over him; this still took at least one soldier out of action for each line of wire. In World War I, British and Commonwealth forces relied on [[wire cutter]]s, which proved unable to cope with the heavier gauge German wire.<ref name="Canada's Army, p.79"/> The [[Bangalore torpedo]] was adopted by many armies, and continued in use past the end of World War II.<ref>"Bangalore torpedo", in Fitzsimons, Bernard, editor, ''Encyclopedia of 20th Century Weapons and Warfare'' (London: Phoebus Publishing Company 1977), Volume 3, p. 269.</ref>

The barbed wire used differed between nations; the German wire was heavier gauge, and British wire cutters, designed for the thinner native product, were unable to cut it.<ref name="Canada's Army, p.79">''Canada's Army'', p. 79.</ref>

=== Geography ===

The confined, static, and subterranean nature of trench warfare resulted in it developing its own peculiar form of [[geography]]. In the forward zone, the conventional transport infrastructure of roads and rail were replaced by the network of trenches and [[trench railways]]. The critical advantage that could be gained by holding the high ground meant that minor hills and ridges gained enormous significance. Many slight hills and valleys were so subtle as to have been nameless until the front line encroached upon them. Some hills were named for their height in metres, such as [[Battle of Hill 60 (Western Front)|Hill 60]]. A farmhouse, windmill, quarry, or copse of trees would become the focus of a determined struggle simply because it was the largest identifiable feature. However, it would not take the artillery long to obliterate it, so that thereafter it became just a name on a map.

The battlefield of [[Flanders]] presented numerous problems for the practice of trench warfare, especially for the Allied forces, mainly British and Canadians, who were often compelled to occupy the low ground. Heavy shelling quickly destroyed the network of ditches and water channels which had previously drained this low-lying area of Belgium. In most places, the [[water table]] was only a metre or so below the surface, meaning that any trench dug in the ground would quickly flood. Consequently, many "trenches" in Flanders were actually above ground and constructed from massive [[breastwork (fortification)|breastwork]]s of sandbags filled with clay. Initially, both the parapet and parados of the trench were built in this way, but a later technique was to dispense with the parados for much of the trench line, thus exposing the rear of the trench to fire from the reserve line in case the front was breached.

[[File:1917 ortler vorgipfelstellung 3850 m highest trench in history of first world war.jpg|thumb|right|Soldiers in a trench on the Ortler, at an elevation of {{convert|3850|m|ft}} (1917).]]
In the [[Alps]], trench warfare even stretched onto vertical slopes and deep into the mountains, to heights of {{convert|3900|m|ft|abbr=on}} above sea level. The [[Ortler]] had an artillery position on its summit near the front line. The trench-line management and trench profiles had to be adapted to the rough terrain, hard rock, and harsh weather conditions. Many trench systems were constructed within glaciers such as the [[Adamello-Presanella]] group or the famous city below the ice on the [[Marmolada]] in the [[Dolomites]].

=== Observation ===
Observing the enemy in trench warfare was difficult, prompting the invention of technology such as the [[camouflage tree]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=The Journey Of The Camouflage Tree |url=https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/the-journey-of-the-camouflage-tree |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=Imperial War Museums |language=en}}</ref>