Editing Travancore (section)

==History==
Due to the geographical isolation of the [[Malabar Coast]] from the rest of the Indian peninsula, attributed to the presence of the [[Western Ghat mountain|Western Ghats]] mountain ranges lying parallel to the coast, the population and language spoken in Kerala differed from those in neighboring states such as [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Karnataka]].

According to the religious text "[[Keralolpathi]]" by the [[Nambudiri|Nambudhiri Brahmins]], the region from [[Gokarna, Karnataka|Gokharna]] to [[Kanyakumari district]] was created when [[Parashurama]] threw his axe and claimed this land, known as Parashuramakshetra.<ref>''Gomantak Prakruti ani Sanskruti'' Part 1, p. 206, B. D. Satoskar, Shubhada Publication</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Aiya VN |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RdzaPW-kEvQC |title=The Travancore State Manual |publisher=Travancore Government Press |year=1906 |pages=210–212 |access-date=2007-11-12}}</ref><ref>''Ancient Indian History'' By Madhavan Arjunan Pillai, p. 204 {{ISBN?}}</ref>

===Medieval Kerala===

[[File:Map of Kampili kingdom.png|thumb|300px|India in 1320 CE. The [[Kollam]]-[[Thiruvananthapuram]]-[[Kanyakumari]] area in the southernmost tip of the [[Indian subcontinent]] was the main seat of the Ay dynasty, was under the influence of the Pandya dynasty.]]

The [[Chera dynasty]] governed the [[Malabar Coast]] between [[Alappuzha]] in the south and [[Kasaragod]] in the north. The region around Coimbatore was ruled by the Cheras during the [[Sangam period]] roughly between the first and the fourth centuries CE and served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap, the principal trade route between the Malabar Coast and Tamil Nadu.<ref name="Trade">{{cite news|last=Subramanian|first=T. S|title=Roman connection in Tamil Nadu|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2007012800201800.htm&date=2007/01/28/&prd=th|access-date=28 October 2011|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=28 January 2007|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130919235748/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2007012800201800.htm&date=2007%2F01%2F28%2F&prd=th|archive-date=19 September 2013}}</ref> However the southern region of the present-day Kerala state was under the [[Ay dynasty]]. During the Ay dynasty, they spoke a language known as [[Middle Tamil]],<ref name="auto">{{Cite book |last=Ponvannan |first=Gayathri |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z6VXEAAAQBAJ&dq=old+malayalam+quilon&pg=PT125 |title=100 Great Chronicles of Indian History: From Cave Paintings to the Constitution |date=2022 |publisher=Hachette India |isbn=978-93-91028-77-0 |language=en}}</ref> Later Ay dynasty, conquered and succeeded by the [[Chera Perumals of Makotai|Kulashekara Perumals]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lannoy |first=Mark de |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pKjZAAAAMAAJ&q=kulasekhara+perumal |title=The Kulasekhara Perumals of Travancore: History and State Formation in Travancore from 1671 to 1758 |date=1997 |publisher=Leiden University |isbn=978-90-73782-92-1 |language=en}}</ref> based in [[Kollam district|Kollam]] (later known as [[Venad (kingdom)|Venad]]),<ref name="auto1">{{Cite book |last=Menon |first=P. Shungoonny |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_YdCAAAAIAAJ&dq=kulasekhara+perumal&pg=PA28 |title=A History of Travancore from the Earliest Times |date=1878 |publisher=Higginbotham |language=en}}</ref> during the period of the Chera Kulashekara Perumal (Keralaputras) dynasty,<ref name="auto1"/> the language evolved into [[Old Malayalam|Old-Malayalam]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sekhar |first=Anantaramayyar Chandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=123RAAAAMAAJ&q=old+malayalam |title=Evolution of Malayalam |date=1953 |publisher=S.M. Katre |language=en}}</ref> The [[Quilon Syrian copper plates|Quilon copper plates]] (849/850 CE) are considered the oldest available inscription written in Old Malayalam.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dravidian-languages |title=Dravidian languages – History, Grammar, Map, & Facts |access-date=22 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709173402/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dravidian-languages |archive-date=9 July 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|year=2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=Perumals+of+Kerala|title=Perumals of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy|publisher=CosmoBooks|isbn=9788188765072|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|orig-date=1972|access-date=7 June 2021|archive-date=7 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607091744/https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=Perumals+of+Kerala|url-status=live}}</ref> Later, the [[Trivandrum district|northern regions of Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kollam district|Kollam]], [[Alappuzha district|Alapuzha]], and [[Pathanamthitta district|Pathanamthitta]] districts became proper [[Malayalam|Malayalam-speaking]] populations in [[Kerala]], while the other districts showed influences from [[Arabic]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Kannada]] languages. During the period of [[Pattom A. Thanu Pillai|Pattom Thanu Pillai]], Travancore was referred to as Malayalam state or the land of proper [[Malayalis]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wnAjqjhc1VcC&dq=pattam+thanu+pillai+travancore+malayalam&pg=PA214 |title=Kerala History and its Makers |date=2011 |publisher=D C Books |isbn=978-81-264-3782-5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_nHft2p3moC&dq=pattam+thanu+pillai+travancore+malayalam&pg=PA277 |title=Liberation of the Oppressed a Continuous Struggle |publisher=History Kanyakumari District |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=State) |first1=Travancore (Princely |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=49F9hXNNjzsC&q=pattam+thanu+pillai+travancore+malayalam |title=The Travancore State Manual |last2=Aiya |first2=V. Nagam |date=1906 |publisher=Travancore government Press |language=en}}</ref>

===Venad Swaroopam===

{{main|Venad}}

[[File:Thambiran Vanakkam 1578.JPG|left|thumbnail|''[[Thambiran Vanakkam]]'' was printed at Kollam, the capital of Venad in 1578, during the Portuguese Era. It holds the record of the first book printed in any Indian language. It was written in the language ''[[Lingua Malabar Tamul]]'', which was spoken in southern Kerala (Kollam-[[Thiruvananthapuram]]-[[Kanyakumari]] area) during the medieval period.]]

The former state of Venad at the tip of the Indian subcontinent, traditionally ruled by [[raja]]s known as the Venattadis. Until the end of the 11th century AD, it was a small principality in the Ay Kingdom. The Ays were the earliest ruling dynasty in southern Kerala, who, at their zenith, ruled over a region from [[Nagercoil]] in the south to Thiruvananthapuram in the north. Their capital during the first [[Sangam age]] was in Aykudi and later, towards the end of the eighth century AD, at [[Quilon|Quilon (Kollam)]]. Though a series of attacks by the resurgent Pandyas between the seventh and eighth centuries caused the decline of the Ays, the dynasty was powerful until the beginning of the tenth century.<ref name="Menon2007">{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey of Kerala History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA97|access-date=18 September 2012|date=2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|pages=97–99}}</ref> [[Sulaiman al-Tajir]], a [[Persians|Persian]] merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of [[Sthanu Ravi Varma]] (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and China at that time, based at the port of Kollam.<ref>{{Cite book|title=India Charitram|last=Menon|first=A. Shreedhara|publisher=DC Books|year=2016|isbn=9788126419395|location=Kottayam|page=219}}</ref>

[[File:British Residency in Kollam.jpg|thumb|The [[British Residency]] in Quilon, where the resident of Travancore resided]]

When the Ay diminished, Venad became the southernmost principality of the [[Second Chera Kingdom]].<ref name="Menon139"/> An invasion of the Cholas into Venad caused the destruction of Kollam in 1096. However, the Chera capital, [[Mahodayapuram]], also fell in the subsequent Chola attack, which compelled the Chera king, Rama Varma Kulasekara, to shift his capital to Kollam.<ref name="Menon140">{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey of Kerala History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA140|access-date=18 September 2012|date=2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|page=140}}</ref> Thus, Rama Varma Kulasekara, the last emperor of the Chera dynasty, was probably the founder of the Venad royal house, and the title of the Chera kings, ''Kulasekara'', was thenceforth kept by the rulers of Venad. Thus the end of the Second Chera dynasty in the 12th century marks the independence of Venad.<ref name="Menon141">{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey of Kerala History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA140|access-date=18 September 2012|date=2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|page=141}}</ref>

In the second half of the 12th century, two branches of the Ay dynasty, the Thrippappur and Chirava, merged in the Venad family, which set up the tradition of designating the ruler of Venad as Chirava Moopan and the heir-apparent as ''Thrippappur Moopan''. While the Chrirava Moopan had his residence at Kollam, the Thrippappur Moopan resided at his palace in Thrippappur, nine miles north of Thiruvananthapuram, and was vested with authority over the temples of Venad kingdom, especially the [[Sri Padmanabhaswamy temple]].<ref name="Menon139">{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey of Kerala History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA139|access-date=18 September 2012|date=2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|page=139}}</ref>

===Formation and development of Travancore===

[[File:1733 Homann Heirs Map of India - Geographicus - India-homannheirs-1733.jpg|thumb|A map of the Malabar Coast in 1733. At that time, Travancore was only a small territory wedged between Kollam and [[Kanyakumari]], as shown in the map (Present-day districts of [[Thiruvananthapuram district]] and Kanyakumari only). The vast region of the Malabar Coast between [[Kannur]] and Kollam was under the control of the [[Zamorin of Calicut]] then. In the latter half of the 18th century Travancore inherited the kingdoms as far as [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] and became a powerful kingdom.]]

[[File:Padmanabhapuram Clock Tower.jpg|left|250px|thumbnail|[[Padmanabhapuram Palace]]]]

[[File:De Lannoy Surrender.JPG|thumb|left|250px|[[Eustachius De Lannoy]] of the [[Dutch East India Company]] surrenders to Maharaja [[Marthanda Varma]] of the Kingdom of Travancore after the [[Battle of Colachel]]. Depiction at [[Padmanabhapuram Palace]].l]]

In the early 18th century CE, the [[Travancore royal family]] adopted some members from the royal family of [[Kolathunadu]] based at [[Kannur]], and [[Parappanad]] in present-day [[Malappuram district]].<ref>Travancore State Manual</ref> The history of Travancore began with Marthanda Varma, who inherited the kingdom of Venad (Thrippappur), and expanded it into Travancore during his reign (1729–1758). After defeating a union of feudal lords and establishing internal peace, he expanded the kingdom of Venad through a series of military campaigns from [[Kanyakumari]] in the south to the borders of [[Kochi]] in the north during his 29-year rule.<ref name="Fuller1976">{{cite book|author=C. J. Fuller|author-link=Chris Fuller (academic)|title=The Nayars Today|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yQM4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA17|access-date=17 September 2012|date= 1976|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-29091-3|page=17}}</ref> This rule also included [[Travancore-Dutch War]] (1739–1753) between Travancore and the Dutch East India Company, which had been allied to some of these kingdoms.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}}

In 1741, Travancore won the Battle of Colachel against the [[Dutch East India Company]], resulting in the complete eclipse of Dutch power in the region. In this battle, the Dutch Captain, [[Eustachius De Lannoy]], was captured. He later defected to Travancore.<ref name="AHoT 136">{{cite book|last1=Shungoony Menon|first1=P.|title=A History of Travancore from the Earliest Times|date=1878|publisher=Higgin Botham & Co.|location=Madras|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ahistorytravanc00menogoog/page/n184 136]–140|url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorytravanc00menogoog|access-date=5 May 2016|language=en}}</ref>

De Lannoy was appointed captain of His Highness' bodyguard<ref name="AHoT 136"/> and later Senior Admiral ("Valiya kappittan")<ref name="AHoT 162">{{cite book|last1=Shungoony Menon|first1=P.|title=A History of Travancore from the Earliest Times|date=1878|publisher=Higgin Botham & Co.|location=Madras|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ahistorytravanc00menogoog/page/n212 162]–164|url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorytravanc00menogoog|access-date=5 May 2016|language=en}}</ref> and modernised the [[Nair pattalam|Travancore army]] by introducing firearms and artillery.<ref name="AHoT 136"/> From 1741 to 1758, De Lannoy remained in command of the Travancore forces and was involved in annexation of small principalities.<ref name="9th Madras Regiment">
{{cite web
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 |work         = Sainik Samachar
 |url          = http://mod.nic.in/samachar/april15-04/body.html#l1
 |title        = 9 Madras : A Tale of 'Terrors'
 |access-date  = 2007-04-20
 |url-status   = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20160312081154/http://mod.nic.in/samachar/april15-04/body.html#l1
 |archive-date = 12 March 2016}}</ref>

Travancore became the most dominant state in the Kerala region by defeating the powerful [[Zamorin]] of [[History of Kozhikode|Kozhikode]] in the battle of [[Purakkad]] in 1755.<ref name="AHoT 162"/> [[Ramayyan Dalawa]], the prime minister (1737–1756) of Marthanda Varma, also played an important role in this consolidation and expansion.

On 3 January 1750, (5 [[Makaram]], 925 [[Malayalam calendar|Kollavarsham]]), Marthanda Varma virtually "dedicated" Travancore to his tutelary deity [[Padmanabhaswamy Temple|Padmanabha]], one of the aspects of the Hindu God [[Vishnu]] with a lotus issuing from his navel on which [[Brahma]] sits. From then on the rulers of Travancore ruled as the "servants of Padmanabha" (the Padmnabha-dasar).<ref name="AHoT 171">{{cite book|last1=Shungoony Menon|first1=P.|title=A History of Travancore from the Earliest Times|date=1878|publisher=Higgin Botham & Co.|location=Madras|page=[https://archive.org/details/ahistorytravanc00menogoog/page/n235 171]|url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorytravanc00menogoog|access-date=5 May 2016|language=en}}</ref>

At the Battle of Ambalapuzha, Marthanda Varma defeated the union of the kings who had been deposed and the king of the [[Cochin kingdom]].{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}

===Mysore invasion===

{{main|Mysore invasion of Kerala}}

[[File:Tippoo Sahib at the lines of Travancore in the 1850s.jpg|thumb|[[Tipu Sultan]] at the lines of Travancore. Illustration from Cassell's Illustrated History of India by James Grant (c. 1896).]]

Marthanda Varma's successor Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma (1758–1798), who was popularly known as [[Dharma Raja]], shifted the capital in 1795 from [[Padmanabhapuram Palace|Padmanabhapuram]] to [[Thiruvananthapuram]]. [[Dharma Raja]]'s period is considered a Golden Age in the history of Travancore. He not only retained the territorial gains of his predecessor, but also improved and encouraged social development. He was greatly assisted by a very efficient administrator, [[Raja Kesavadas]], the Diwan of Travancore. {{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

Travancore often allied with the [[English East India Company]] in military conflicts.<ref name="Travancore 2011">"Travancore." Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. {{page?|date=August 2024}}{{ISBN?}}</ref> During [[Dharma Raja]]'s reign, [[Tipu Sultan]], the de facto ruler of [[Mysore]] and the son of [[Hyder Ali]], attacked Travancore in 1789 as a part of the [[Mysore invasion of Kerala]]. Dharma Raja had earlier refused to hand over the [[Hindu]] political refugees from the [[Mysore invasion of Kerala|Mysore occupation of Malabar]] who had been given asylum in Travancore. The Mysore army entered the Cochin kingdom from Coimbatore in November 1789 and reached [[Thrissur]] in December. On 28 December 1789 Tipu Sultan attacked the Nedunkotta (Northern Lines) from the north, causing the [[Battle of the Nedumkotta (1789)|Battle of Nedumkotta (1789)]], and the defeat of the Mysore army.

===Velu Thampi Dalawa's rebellion===

{{Main|Travancore Rebellion}}

[[File:A language map of India prepared for the missionary projects at Serampore, 1822.jpg|left|thumbnail|A language map of India prepared in 1822. Note that a major portion of Travancore was included in [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-spoken region.]]
On [[Dharma Raja]]'s death in 1798, [[Balarama Varma]] (1798–1810), the weakest ruler of the dynasty, took over at the age of sixteen. A treaty brought Travancore under a [[Subsidiary alliance]] with the East India Company in 1795.<ref name="Travancore 2011"/>

The Prime Ministers ([[Dewan|Dalawas]] or [[Dewan]]s) started to take control of the kingdom beginning with [[Velu Thampi Dalawa]] (Velayudhan Chempakaraman Thampi) (1799–1809) who was appointed as the ''divan'' following the dismissal of [[Jayanthan Sankaran Nampoothiri]] (1798–1799). Initially, [[Velayudhan Chempakaraman Thampi]] and the [[English East India Company]] got along very well. When a section of the Travancore army mutinied in 1805 against [[Velu Thampi Dalawa]], he sought refuge with the British Resident Colonel (later General) [[Colin Macaulay]] and later used [[English East India Company]] troops to crush the mutiny. Velu Thampi also played a key role in negotiating a new treaty between Travancore and the English East India Company. However, the demands of the East India Company for the payment of compensation for their involvement in the Travancore-Mysore War (1791) on behalf of Travancore, led to tension between the Diwan and Colonel Macaulay. Velu Thampi and the diwan of Cochin kingdom, [[Paliath Achan]] Govindan Menon, who was unhappy with Macaulay for granting asylum to his enemy Kunhi Krishna Menon, declared "war" on the East India Company. {{citation needed|date=May 2014}}

[[File:Adoption Durbar, Trivandrum.jpg|left|thumb|Adoption Durbar, Trivandrum]]

The East India Company army defeated Paliath Achan's army in Cochin on 27 February 1809. [[Paliath Achan]] surrendered to the East India Company and was exiled to [[Madras]] and later to [[Benaras]]. The Company defeated forces under [[Velu Thampi Dalawa]] at battles near Nagercoil and Kollam, and inflicted heavy casualties on the rebels, many of whom then deserted and went back home. The Maharajah of Travancore, who hitherto had not openly taken any part in the rebellion, now allied with the British and appointed one of Thampi's enemies as his prime minister. The allied East India Company army and the Travancore soldiers camped in Pappanamcode, just outside [[Thiruvananthapuram]]. Velu Thampi Dalawa now organised a guerrilla struggle against the company, but committed suicide to avoid capture by the Travancore army. After the mutiny of 1805 against Velu Thampi Dalawa, most of the Nair army battalions of Travancore were disbanded, and after Velu Thampi Dalawa's uprising, almost all of the remaining Travancore forces were also disbanded, with the East India Company undertaking to serve the Rajah in cases of external and internal aggression. {{citation needed|date=May 2016}}

===Cessation of mahādanams===

The Rajahs of Travancore had been conditionally promoted to Kshatriyahood with periodic performance of [[sixteen great gifts|16 mahādānams]] (great gifts in charity) such as [[Hiranyagarbha (donation)|Hiranya-garbhā]], Hiranya-Kāmadhenu, and Hiranyāswaratā in each of which thousands of [[Brahmins]] had been given costly gifts apart from each getting a minimum of 1 ''kazhanch'' (78.65&nbsp;gm) of gold.<ref name="ASo00">''A Social History of India''&nbsp;– Ashish Publishing House: {{ISBN|81-7648-170-X}}  (2000). {{page?|date=August 2024}}</ref> In 1848 the [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Marquess of Dalhousie]], then [[Governor-General of India]], was apprised that the depressed condition of the finances in Travancore was due to the mahādanams by the rulers.<ref name="Adm88">Sadasivan, S.N., 1988, ''Administration and social development in Kerala: A study in administrative sociology'', New Delhi, Indian Institute of Public Administration</ref> Lord Dalhousie instructed [[George Harris, 3rd Baron Harris|Lord Harris]], Governor of the [[Madras Presidency]], to warn the then King of Travancore, [[Uthram Thirunal Marthanda Varma|Martanda Varma (Uttram Tirunal 1847–60)]], that if he did not put a stop to this practice, the Madras Presidency would take over his state's administration. This led to the cessation of the practice of mahādanams. {{citation needed|date=May 2016}}

All Travancorean Kings including [[Sree Moolam Thirunal]] conducted the ''Hiranyagarbham'' and ''Tulapurushadaanam'' ceremonies. Maharaja [[Chithira Thirunal]] was the only King of Travancore not to have conducted these rituals as he considered them extremely costly.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mathrubhumi.com/paramparyam/story.php?id=230343 |title=ഹിരണ്യഗര്‍ഭച്ചടങ്ങിന് ഡച്ചുകാരോട് ചോദിച്ചത് 10,000 കഴിഞ്ച് സ്വര്‍ണം KERALAM Paramparyam - Mathrubhumi Special |access-date=2014-02-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140224230755/http://www.mathrubhumi.com/paramparyam/story.php?id=230343 |archive-date=24 February 2014 }} MATHRUBHUMI Paramparyam ഹിരണ്യഗര്‍ഭച്ചടങ്ങിന് ഡച്ചുകാരോട് ചോദിച്ചത് 10,000 കഴിഞ്ച് സ്വര്‍ണം – "ശ്രീമൂലംതിരുനാള്‍ വരെയുള്ള രാജാക്കന്മാര്‍ ഹിരണ്യഗര്‍ഭം നടത്തിയിട്ടുണ്ടെന്നാണ് അറിയുന്നത്. ഭാരിച്ച ചെലവ് കണക്കിലെടുത്ത് ശ്രീചിത്തിരതിരുനാള്‍ ബാലരാമവര്‍മ്മ മഹാരാജാവ് ഈ ചടങ്ങ് നടത്തിയില്ല."</ref>

===The 19th and early 20th centuries===

[[File:1887 Travancore revenue stamps.jpg|thumb|A block of 1887 Travancore revenue stamps depicting [[Queen Victoria]]]]

[[File:Travancore Rupee - Reverse.jpg|thumb|Malayalam letters on old [[Travancore Rupee]] coin]]

In Travancore, the caste system was more rigorously enforced than in many other parts of India up to the mid-1800s. The hierarchical caste order was deeply entrenched in the social system and was supported by the government, which transformed this caste-based social system into a religious institution.<ref>Cf. Ward & Conner, ''Geographical and Statistical Memoir'', p. 133; V. Nagam Aiya, ''The Travancore State Manual'', Volume 2, Madras: AES, 1989 (1906), p. 72.</ref> In such a context, the belief in [[Ayyavazhi]], apart from being a religious system, served also as a reform movement in uplifting the downtrodden of society, both socially and religiously. The [[Ayyavazhi rituals|rituals of Ayyavazhi]] constituted a social discourse. Its beliefs, mode of worship, and religious organisation seem to have enabled the Ayyavazhi group to negotiate, cope with, and resist the imposition of authority.<ref>G. Patrick, Religion and Subaltern Agency, University of Madras, 2003, The Subaltern Agency in Ayyavali, p. 174.</ref> The hard tone of Vaikundar towards this was perceived as a revolution against the government.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mission.akshaya.net/dpi/ |title=Kerala State Syllabus – Text books |access-date=2011-07-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829094406/http://mission.akshaya.net/dpi/ |archive-date=29 August 2011 }}''Towards Modern Kerala, 10th Standard Text Book'', Chapter 9, p. 101. </ref> So King [[Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma]] initially imprisoned [[Vaikundar]] in the Singarathoppu jail, where the jailor Appaguru ended up as a disciple of Vaikundar. Vaikundar was later set at liberty by the King.<ref>Cf. Rev.Samuel Zechariah, ''The London Missionary Society in South Travancore'', p. 201.</ref>

<gallery widths="200" heights="200">
File:Anchal Box Perumbavoor Rest House.JPG|Travancore's postal service adopted a standard cast iron pillar box, made by Massey & Co in [[Chennai|Madras]], similar to the British [[Pillar box#Penfolds|Penfold]] model introduced in 1866. This [[Anchal post]] box is in [[Perumbavoor]].
File:Ayilyam Thirunal and Madhava Rao.JPG|[[Ayilyam Thirunal of Travancore]] ''(centre)'' with the first prince ''(left)'' and Dewan Rajah Sir [[T. Madhava Rao]] ''(right)''
File:Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma.jpg|The last King of Travancore, Sree Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma
File:Nair pattalam cavalry.jpg|Travancore ''Nair Brigade'' in 1861
</gallery>
After the death of [[Sree Moolam Thirunal]] in 1924, [[Sethu Lakshmi Bayi]] became regent (1924–1931), as the heir apparent, Sree [[Chithira Thirunal]] was then a minor, 12 years old.<ref>{{cite book|last=A. Sreedhara|first=Menon|title=A Survey of Kerala History|pages=271–273}}</ref>

In 1935, Travancore joined the [[Imperial Service Troops|Indian State Forces Scheme]] and a Travancore unit was named [[1st Travancore Nair Infantry]], [[Travancore State Forces]]. The unit was reorganised as an [[Indian State Infantry Battalion]] by Lieutenant Colonel H S Steward, who was appointed commandant of the Travancore State Forces.<ref name="TravancoreStateForces">{{cite web|title=Travancore State Forces|url=https://indianarmy.nic.in/Site/FormTemplete/frmTempSimple.aspx?MnId=0Shq7wwoytm5UmTfNYDhxQ==&ParentID=X8ZXdizSqjhXDuSfL0C75Q==links/Committee/1Adminrpt1958.asp?intID=1|date=2020-04-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413124927/https://indianarmy.nic.in/Site/FormTemplete/frmTempSimple.aspx?MnId=0Shq7wwoytm5UmTfNYDhxQ%3D%3D&ParentID=X8ZXdizSqjhXDuSfL0C75Q%3D%3Dlinks%2FCommittee%2F1Adminrpt1958.asp%3FintID%3D1|archive-date=13 April 2020|access-date=2020-05-06}}</ref>

The last ruling king of Travancore, [[Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma]], reigned from 1931 to 1949. "His reign marked revolutionary progress in the fields of education, defence, economy and society as a whole."<ref>"During his rule, the revenues of the State were nearly quadrupled from a little over Rs 21/2 crore to over Rs 91/2 crore." – 'The Story of the Integration of the Indian States' by V. P. Menon </ref> He made the famous Temple Entry Proclamation on 12 November 1936, which opened all the [[Kshetram]]s (Hindu temples in Kerala) in Travancore to backward communities. This act won him praise from across India, most notably from [[Mohandas Gandhi|Mahatma Gandhi]]. The first public transport system (Thiruvananthapuram–Mavelikkara) and telecommunication system (Thiruvananthapuram Palace–Mavelikkara Palace) were launched during his reign. He also started the industrialisation of the state, enhancing the role of the public sector. He introduced heavy industry in the state and established giant public sector undertakings. As many as twenty industries were established, mostly for utilizing the local raw materials such as rubber, ceramics, and minerals. A majority of the premier industries in Kerala even today, were established by Sree Chithira Thirunal. He patronized musicians, artists, dancers, and Vedic scholars. Sree Chithira Thirunal appointed, for the first time, an ''Art Advisor'' to the Government, Dr. G. H. Cousins. He also established a new form of University Training Corps, viz. ''Labour Corps'', preceding the N.C.C, in the educational institutions. The expenses of the university were to be met fully by the government. Sree Chithira Thirunal also built a beautiful palace named ''Kowdiar Palace'', finished in 1934, which was previously an old ''Naluektu'', given by Sree Moolam Thirunal to his mother Sethu Parvathi Bayi in 1915.<ref>{{cite web|last=Supreme Court|first=Of India|title=Good Governance: Judiciary and the Rule of Law|url=http://supremecourtofindia.nic.in/speeches/speeches_2007/ctm.pdf|publisher=Sree Chithira Thirunal Memorial Lecture, 29 December 2007|access-date=1 February 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017164448/http://www.supremecourtofindia.nic.in/speeches/speeches_2007/ctm.pdf|archive-date=17 October 2012}}</ref><ref name="Aswathy Thirunal Gauri Lakshmi Bai">{{cite book|last=Gauri Lakshmi Bai|first=Aswathy Thirunal|title=Sree Padmanabhaswamy Kshetram|year=1998|publisher=The State Institute of Languages, Kerala|location=Thiruvananthapuram|isbn=978-81-7638-028-7|pages=242–243}}</ref><ref name="A. Sreedhara Menon">{{cite book|last=Menon|first=A. Sreedhara|title=A Survey of Kerala History|year=1967|publisher=D C Books|location=Kottayam|isbn=81-264-1578-9|page=273}}</ref>

A famine in 1943 claimed approximately 90,000 lives in Travancore.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Balasubramanian |first=Aditya |date=2023 |title=A forgotten famine of '43? Travancore's muffled 'cry of distress' |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/forgotten-famine-of-43-travancores-muffled-cry-of-distress/BB804EA24281112CC57ACAAADDB5BFD2 |journal=Modern Asian Studies |language=en |volume=57 |issue=5 |pages=1495–1529 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X21000706 |s2cid=259440543 |issn=0026-749X}}</ref>

However, his prime minister, Sir [[C. P. Ramaswami Iyer]], was unpopular among the communists of Travancore. The tension between the Communists and Iyer led to minor riots. In one such [[Punnapra-Vayalar uprising|riot in Punnapra-Vayalar]] in 1946, the Communist rioters established their own government in the area. This was put down by the Travancore Army and Navy. The prime minister issued a statement in June 1947 that Travancore would remain an independent country instead of joining the Indian Union; subsequently, an attempt was made on his life, following which he resigned and left for Madras, to be succeeded by Sri [[P.G.N. Unnithan]]. According to witnesses such as K.[[Aiyappan Pillai]], constitutional adviser to the Maharaja and historians like [[A. Sreedhara Menon]], the rioters and mob-attacks had no bearing on the decision of the Maharaja.<ref>Sreedhara Menon in ''Triumph & Tragedy in Travancore'' Annals of Sir C. P.'s Sixteen Years, DC Books publication</ref><ref>Aiyappan Pillai Interview to Asianet news Accessed at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iIMS_6Z_WRE</ref> After several rounds of discussion and negotiation between Sree Chithira Thirunal and [[V.P. Menon]], the king agreed that the Kingdom should accede to the Indian Union on 12 August 1947.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.abhilekh-patal.in/jspui/handle/123456789/2762946?searchWord=instrument&backquery=[query=%22instrument+of+accession%22&originalquery=&sort_by=dc.date.accessioned_dt&order=desc&rpp=20&etal=0&start=20] |title=Travancore State – Instrument of Accession and Standstill Agreement signed between Rama Verma, Ruler of Travancore State and the Dominion of India |publisher=Ministry of States, Government of India |year=1947 |location=New Delhi |page=3 |chapter=Instrument of Accession of His Highness the Maharajah of Travancore |access-date=31 August 2022 |url-access=registration |via=[[National Archives of India]]}}</ref> On 1 July 1949 the Kingdom of Travancore was merged with the Kingdom of Cochin and the short-lived state of [[Travancore-Cochin|Travancore-Kochi]] was formed.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kurian|first=Nimi|date=2016-06-30|title=Joining hands|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/kids/Joining-hands/article14410304.ece|access-date=2021-07-22|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

[[File:Madras Prov South 1909.jpg|thumb|Travancore in the [[Madras Presidency]] in 1909]]

On 11 July 1991, Maharaja Sree Chithira Thirunal suffered a stroke and was admitted to a hospital, where he died on 20 July. He had ruled Travancore for 67 years and at his death was one of the few surviving rulers of a first-class [[princely state]] in the old [[British Raj]]. He was also the last surviving Knight Grand Commander of both the [[Order of the Star of India]] and of the [[Order of the Indian Empire]]. He was succeeded as ''head'' of the Royal House as well as the ''Titular Maharajah'' of Travancore by his younger brother, [[Uthradom Thirunal Marthanda Varma]]. The Government of India issued a stamp on 6 Nov 1991, commemorating the reforms that marked his reign in Travancore.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gauri Lakshmi Bai|first=Aswathy Thirunal|title=Sree Padmanabha Swamy Kshetram|date=1998|publisher=The State Institute of Languages|location=Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala|isbn=978-81-7638-028-7|pages=278–282, 242–243, 250–251}}</ref>

===Formation of Kerala===

{{See also|Merger of Kanyakumari with Madras State}}

The State of Kerala came into existence on 1 November 1956, with a governor appointed by the president of India as the head of state instead of a king.<ref name="Kerala">{{cite web|url=https://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1956-37.pdf|title=The States Reorganisation Act, 1956|website=legislative.gov.in|publisher=Government of India}}</ref> The king was stripped of all political powers and of the right to receive [[Privy purse in India|privy purses]], according to the twenty-sixth amendment of the Indian constitution act of 31 July 1971. He died on 20 July 1991.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend26.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111206041333/http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend26.htm|url-status=dead|title=The Constitution (Twenty-Sixth Amendment Act), 1971|archivedate=6 December 2011}}</ref>

===Merger of Kanyakumari with Madras State===

{{main article|Merger of Kanyakumari with Madras State}}

[[Tamils]] lived in large numbers in the [[Thovalai]], [[Agastheeswaram]], [[Sengottai]], [[Eraniel]], [[Vilavancode]], [[Kalkulam]], [[Devikulam]], [[Neyyattinkara]], [[Thiruvananthapuram]] South and [[Thiruvananthapuram]] North [[taluk]]s of erstwhile Travancore State.<ref name="r1881"/> In the Tamil regions, [[Malayalam]] was the official language and there were only a few Tamil schools. So the Tamils met many hardships. The Travancore state government continued rejecting the requests of Tamils.<ref>V. S. Sathianesan – Tamil Separatism in Travancore</ref> During that period the Travancore State Congress favoured the idea of uniting all the Malayalam speaking regions and forming a "Unified Kerala". In protest against this idea, many Tamil leaders vacated the party. Tamils gathered together at [[Nagercoil]] on 16 December 1945 under the leadership of Sam Nathaniel and formed the new political party All Travancore Tamilian Congress. That party pushed for the merger of Tamil regions in Travancore with Tamil Nadu.<ref>R. Isaac Jeyadhas – Kanyakumari District and Indian Independence Struggle (Tamil)</ref> During the election campaign, clashes occurred between the Tamil Nadar community and the Malayali Nair community in Kalkulam – Vilavancode taluks. The police force suppressed the agitating Nadars. In February 1948 police opened fire and two Tamil-speaking Nadars were killed.<ref name="DDaniel"/>

In the working committee meeting of Tamilian congress at Eraviputhur on 30 June 1946, the name of the political party was changed to Travancore Tamil Nadu Congress (T.T.N.C). T.T.N.C was popular among the Tamils living in Thovalai and Agateeswaram taluks. Ma. Po. Sivagnanam ([[Ma. Po. Si.|Ma.Po.Si]]) was the only leader from Tamil Nadu who acted in favour of T.T.N.C.<ref name="DDaniel">D. Daniel – Travancore Tamils: Struggle for Identity.</ref> After the independence of India, State Assembly elections were announced in Travancore. As a consequence, T.T.N.C improved its popularity among Tamils. A popular and leading advocate from Vilavancode, [[A. Nesamony]] organised a meeting of his supporters at Allan Memorial Hall, Nagercoil on 8 September 1947. In that meeting it was declared that they must achieve their objective through their political organisation, the T.T.N.C. And T.T.N.C started gaining strength and momentum in Kalkulam – Vilavancode Taluks.<ref name="BYogeeswaran">B. Yogeeswaran – History of Travancore Tamil Struggle (Tamil)</ref>

T.T.N.C won in 14 constituencies in the election to the State Legislative Assembly. Mr. [[A. Nesamony]] was elected as the legislative leader of the party. Then under his leadership, the awakened Tamil population was prepared to undergo any sacrifice to achieve their goal.<ref name="DPeter">D. Peter – Malayali Dominance and Tamil Liberation (Tamil)</ref>

In 1950, a meeting was held at [[Palayamkottai]] to make compromises between state congress and T.T.N.C. The meeting met with failure and Mr. Sam Nathaniel resigned from the post of president of T.T.N.C Mr. P. Ramasamy Pillai, a strong follower of Mr. A. Nesamony was elected as the New President.<ref name="BYogeeswaran"/> The first general election of Independent India was held in 1952. T.T.N.C won 8 legislative assembly seats. Mr. A. Chidambaranathan became the minister on behalf of T.T.N.C in the coalition state government formed by the Congress. In the parliamentary Constituency Mr. A. Nesamony was elected as M.P. and in the Rajyasabha seat. Mr. A. Abdul Razak was elected as M.P. on behalf of T.T.N.C.<ref name="BYogeeswaran"/> In due course, accusing the Congress government for not showing enough care the struggle of the Tamils, T.T.N.C had broken away from the coalition and the Congress government lost the majority. So fresh elections were announced. In 1954 elections, T.T.N.C gained victory in 12 constituencies.<ref name="BYogeeswaran"/> 
[[Pattom A. Thanu Pillai|Pattom Thanu Pillai]] was the chief minister for Thiru – Kochi legislative assembly. He engaged hard measures against the agitations of Tamils. Especially the Tamils at [[Devikulam]] – Peermedu regions went through the atrocities of Travancore Police force. Condemning the attitude of the police, T.T.N.C leaders from [[Nagercoil]] went to [[Munnar]] and participated in agitations against the prohibitive orders. The leaders were arrested and an uncalm atmosphere prevailed in South Travancore.<ref>R. Kuppusamy – Historical foot prints of a True War (Tamil)</ref>

On 11 August, Liberation Day celebrations were held at many places in South Travancore. Public meetings and processions were organised. Communists also collaborated with the agitation programmes. Police opened fire at the processions in Thoduvetty (Martandam) and Puthukadai. Nine Tamil volunteers were killed and thousands of T.T.N.C and communist sympathizers were arrested in various parts of Tamil main land. At the end, Pattom Thanu Pillai's ministry was toppled and normalcy returned to the Tamil regions.<ref name="DPeter"/> The central government had appointed [[Fazal Ali Commission]](1953 dec) for the states reorganisation based on language. It submitted its report on 10 August 1955. Based on this report, Devikulam – Peermedu and [[Neyyattinkara]] Taluks were merged with [[Kerala state]].<ref>B. Mariya John – Linguistic Reorganisation of Madras Presidenty</ref> On 1 November 1956 – four Taluks Thovalai, Agastheeswaram, Kalkulam, Vilavancode were recognised to form the New Kanyakumari District and merged with Tamil Nadu State. Half of [[Sengottai]] Taluk was merged with [[Tirunelveli district|Tirunelveli District]]. The main demand of T.T.N.C was to merger the Tamil regions with Tamil Nadu and major part of its demand was realised. So T.T.N.C was dissolved thereafter.<ref name="DPeter"/>

===Retainment of Devikulam and Peerumedu Taluks in Kerala===

{{See also|Idukki district}}

Apart from [[Kanyakumari district]], the Taluks of [[Devikulam]] and [[Peermade]] in present-day [[Idukki district]] also had a [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-majority until the late 1940s.<ref name="idukki">{{Cite news|title=Why did Kerala surrender Kanyakumari without a fight?|url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2020/10/31/why-did-kerala-surrender-kanyakumari-to-tamil-nadu.html|last=Ayyappan|first=R|date=31 October 2020|access-date=16 June 2021|work=Onmanorama}}</ref> The T.T.N.C had also requested to merge these Taluks with [[Madras State]].<ref name="idukki"/> However it was due to some decisions of [[Pattom Thanu Pillai]], who was the first prime minister of Travancore, that they retained in the modern-state of [[Kerala]].<ref name="idukki"/> Pattom came up with a colonisation project to re-engineer the demography of [[Cardamom Hills]].<ref name="idukki"/> His colonisation project was to relocate 8,000 [[Malayalam]]-speaking families into the Taluks of [[Devikulam]] and [[Peermade]].<ref name="idukki"/> About 50,000 acres in these Taluks, which were Tamil-majority area, were chosen for the colonisation project.<ref name="idukki"/> As a victory of the Colonisation project done by post-independence Travancore, these two Taluks and a larger portion of [[Cardamom Hills]] retained in the state of [[Kerala]], after [[States Reorganisation Act, 1956]].<ref name="idukki"/>