Editing Tiwanaku (section)

== Structures ==
[[File:Posnansky Fig 11.png|thumb|280x280px|Carving in the [[Gate of the Sun]] of Tiwanaku, (Photography of 1903).]]
The structures that have been excavated by researchers at Tiwanaku include the terraced [[platform mound]] [[Akapana]], Akapana East, and [[Pumapunku]] stepped platforms, the [[Kalasasaya]], the Kantatallita, the Kheri Kala, and Putuni enclosures, and the Semi-Subterranean Temple.

Some authors believe that the elites of Tiwanaku lived inside four walls that were surrounded by a moat. This theory is called "Tiwanaku moat theory". This moat, some believe, was to create the image of a sacred island. Inside the walls were many images devoted to human origin, which only the elites would see. Commoners may have entered this structure only for ceremonial purposes since it was home to the holiest of shrines.<ref name="Kolata"/>

Many theories for the skill of Tiwanaku's architectural construction have been proposed. One is that they used a ''luk’ a,'' which is a standard measurement of about sixty centimeters. Protzen and Nair state that "Through all our measurements, we could not only not corroborate this hypothesis, but we were unable-until now-to detect a convincing unit of measurement, or module, from which to derive other measurements either as multiples or fractions of this module." Another argument is for the Pythagorean Ratio. This idea calls for right triangles at a ratio of five to four to three used in the gateways to measure all parts. Lastly, Protzen and Nair argue that Tiwanaku had a system set for individual elements dependent on context and composition. This is shown in the construction of similar gateways ranging from diminutive to monumental size, proving that scaling factors did not affect proportion. With each added element, the individual pieces were shifted to fit together.<ref name="ProtzenOther2000">Protzen, J.-P., and S. E. Nair, 2000, "On Reconstructing Tiwanaku Architecture": ''The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians,'' vol. 59, no., 3, pp. 358–371.</ref>

As the population grew, occupational niches developed, and people began to specialize in certain skills. There was an increase in artisans, who worked in pottery, jewelry, and textiles. Like the later Inca, the Tiwanaku had few commercial or market institutions. Instead, the culture relied on elite redistribution.<ref>, Smith, Michael E. (2004), "The Archaeology of Ancient Economies," ''Annu. Rev. Anthrop.'' 33: 73-102.</ref> That is, the elites of the state controlled essentially all economic output but were expected to provide each commoner with all the resources needed to perform his or her function. Selected occupations include agriculturists, herders, pastoralists, etc. Such separation of occupations was accompanied by hierarchical stratification within the state.<ref>Bahn, Paul G. ''Lost Cities''. New York: Welcome Rain, 1999.</ref>

[[File:Monolito Fraile (Tiwanaku, Bolivia) (36936733575).jpg|thumb|Fraile Monolith, holding a [[snuff tray]] and a [[Qiru]]; the belt shows sprouting plants that are often mistaken for crabs]]

===Akapana===
{{Main|Akapana}}
The Akapana is a "half [[Chakana|Andean Cross]]"-shaped structure that is 257 m wide, 197 m broad at its maximum, and 16.5 m tall. At its center appears to have been a sunken court. This was nearly destroyed by a deep [[Looting|looters]] excavation that extends from the center of this structure to its eastern side. Material from the looter's excavation was dumped off the eastern side of the Akapana. A staircase is present on its western side. Possible residential complexes might have occupied both the northeast and southeast corners of this structure.

===Akapana East===
The Akapana East was built on the eastern side of early Tiwanaku. Later it was considered a boundary between the ceremonial center and the urban area. It was made of a thick, prepared floor of sand and clay, which supported a group of buildings. Yellow and red clay was used in different areas for what seems like aesthetic purposes. It was swept clean of all domestic refuse, signaling its great importance to the culture.<ref name="Isbell2004a">Isbell, W. H., 2004, ''Palaces and Politics in the Andean Middle Horizon.'' in S. T. Evans and J. Pillsbury, eds., pp. 191–246. [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/EVAPAL.html?show=contents ''Palaces of the Ancient New World''], Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection Washington, D.C.</ref>

===Pumapunku===
{{Main|Pumapunku}}
The [[Pumapunku]] is a man-made platform built on an east-west axis like the Akapana. It is a T-shaped, terraced earthen platform mound faced with megalithic blocks. It is 167.36 m wide along its north-south axis and 116.7 m broad along its east-west axis and is 5 m tall. Identical 20-meter-wide projections extend 27.6 meters north and south from the northeast and southeast corners of the Pumapunku. Walled and unwalled courts and an esplanade are associated with this structure.

A prominent feature of the Pumapunku is a large stone terrace; it is 6.75 by 38.72 meters in dimension and paved with large stone blocks. It is called the "''Plataforma Lítica''" and contains the largest stone block found in the Tiwanaku site.<ref name="Sangines1970">Ponce Sanginés, C. and G. M. Terrazas, 1970, ''Acerca De La Procedencia Del Material Lítico De Los Monumentos De Tiwanaku.'' Publication no. 21. ''Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Bolivia''.</ref><ref name="Vranich1999">Vranich, A., 1999, [http://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI9926211/ ''Interpreting the Meaning of Ritual Spaces: The Temple Complex of Pumapunku, Tiwanaku, Bolivia''], Doctoral Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.</ref> According to Ponce Sangines, the block is estimated to weigh 131 metric tonnes.<ref name="Sangines1970"/> The second-largest stone block found within the Pumapunku is estimated to be 85 metric tonnes.<ref name="Sangines1970"/><ref name="Vranich1999"/>

Scattered around the site of the Puma Punku are various types of cut stones. Due to the complexity of the stonework the site is often cited by conspiracy theorists to be a site of ancient alien intervention. These claims are entirely unsubstantiated. The most informed reconstruction of the building is based on the 3D printing and modeling by Alexei Vranich.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vranich |first=Alexei |date=2018-12-13 |title=Reconstructing ancient architecture at Tiwanaku, Bolivia: the potential and promise of 3D printing |journal=Heritage Science |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1186/s40494-018-0231-0 |doi-access=free |issn=2050-7445}}</ref>
[[File:TiahuanacoGateEGSquier1877.jpg|thumb|right|"[[Gateway of the Sun]]", Tiwanaku, drawn by [[Ephraim Squier]] in 1877. The vertical scale is exaggerated in this drawing.]]

===Kalasasaya===
{{Main|Kalasasaya}}
The [[Kalasasaya]] is a large courtyard more than 300 feet long, outlined by a high gateway. It is located to the north of the Akapana and west of the Semi-Subterranean Temple. Within the courtyard is where explorers found the Gateway of the Sun. Since the late 20th century, researchers have theorized that this was not the gateway's original location.

Near the courtyard is the Semi-Subterranean Temple; a square sunken courtyard that is unique for its north-south rather than east-west axis.<ref name="Goldstein, Paul 1993">{{cite book |title=Tiwanaku Temples and State Expansion: A Tiwanaku Sunken-Court Temple in Moquegua, Peru |author=Goldstein, Paul |year=1993}}</ref> The walls are covered with tenon heads of many different styles, suggesting that the structure was reused for different purposes over time.<ref name="Brownman1981a"/> It was built with walls of sandstone pillars and smaller blocks of Ashlar masonry.<ref name="Brownman1981a">Browman, D. L., 1981, "New light on Andean Tiwanaku," ''New Scientist'' vol. 69, no. 4, pp. 408–419.</ref><ref>Coe, Michael, Dean Snow, and Elizabeth Benson, 1986, ''Atlas of Ancient America'' p. 190</ref> The largest stone block in the Kalasasaya is estimated to weigh 26.95 metric tons.<ref name="Sangines1970"/>

Within many of the site's structures are impressive gateways; the ones of monumental scale are placed on artificial mounds, platforms, or sunken courts. One gateway shows the iconography of a front-facing figure in [[Staff God]] pose. This iconography also is used on some oversized vessels, indicating an importance to the culture. The iconography of the Gateway of the Sun called ''Southern Andean Iconographic Series'' can be seen on several stone sculptures, [[Qiru]]s, [[snuff tray]]s and other Tiwanaku artifacts.<ref>Silverman, Helaine ''Andean Archaeology'' Volume 2. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, 2004</ref>

The unique carvings on the top of the Gate of the sun depict animals and other beings. Some have claimed that the symbolism represents a calendar system unique to the people of Tiwanaku, although there is no definitive evidence that this theory is correct. 

The Gateway of the Sun and others located at Pumapunku are not complete. They are missing part of a typical recessed frame known as a [[chambranle]], which typically have sockets for clamps to support later additions. These architectural examples, as well as the Akapana Gate, have unique detail and demonstrate high skill in stone-cutting. This reveals a knowledge of [[descriptive geometry]]. The regularity of elements suggests they are part of a system of proportions.

[[File:Tiwanaku - Puerta de la Luna - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Gate of the Moon.]]