Editing Thirty Years' War (section)

==Phase I: 1618 to 1635==

===Bohemian Revolt===
{{Main|Bohemian Revolt}}
[[File:Friedrich V. von der Pfalz bis.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.0|"Winter's King", [[Frederick V of the Palatinate]], whose acceptance of the Bohemian Crown sparked the conflict]]

Ferdinand once claimed he would rather see his lands destroyed than tolerate [[heresy]] within them. Less than 18 months after taking control of [[Duchy of Styria|Styria]] in 1595, he had eliminated Protestantism in what had been a stronghold of the [[Reformation]].{{Sfn|Bassett|2015|p=14}} Absorbed by their war in the Netherlands, his Spanish relatives preferred to avoid antagonising Protestants elsewhere. They recognised the dangers associated with Ferdinand's fervent Catholicism, but supported his claim due to the lack of alternatives.{{Sfn|Wedgwood|1938|pp=74–75}}

On being elected king of Bohemia in May 1617, Ferdinand reconfirmed [[Letter of Majesty|Protestant religious freedoms]], but his record in Styria led to the suspicion he was only awaiting a chance to overturn them. These concerns were heightened after a series of legal disputes over property were all decided in favour of the Catholic Church. In May 1618, Protestant nobles led by [[Jindřich Matyáš Thurn|Count Thurn]] met in [[Prague Castle]] with Ferdinand's two Catholic representatives, [[Vilem Slavata of Chlum|Vilem Slavata]] and [[Jaroslav Borzita of Martinice|Jaroslav Borzita]]. In what became known as the [[Third Defenestration of Prague]], both men were thrown out of the castle windows along with their secretary [[Filip Fabricius]], although all three survived.{{Sfn|Wedgwood|1938|pp=78–79}}

Thurn established a Protestant-dominated government in Bohemia, while unrest expanded into [[Silesia]] and the Habsburg heartlands of [[Lower Austria|Lower]] and [[Upper Austria]], where much of the nobility was also Protestant. Losing control of these threatened the entire Habsburg state, while Bohemia was one of the most prosperous areas of the Empire and its electoral vote crucial to ensuring Ferdinand succeeded Matthias as Emperor. The combination meant their recapture was vital for the Austrian Habsburgs but chronic financial weakness left them dependent on Maximilian and Spain for the resources needed to achieve this.{{Sfn|Bassett|2015|pp=12, 15}}

Spanish involvement inevitably drew in the Dutch, and potentially [[Kingdom of France|France]], although the strongly Catholic [[Louis XIII of France]] faced his own [[Huguenot rebellions|Protestant rebels]] at home and refused to support them elsewhere. The revolt also provided opportunities for external opponents of the Habsburgs, including the Ottoman Empire and [[Savoyard state|Savoy]]. Funded by Frederick and [[Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy]], a mercenary army under [[Ernst von Mansfeld]] was sent to support the Bohemian rebels. Attempts by Maximilian and John George of Saxony to broker a negotiated solution ended when Matthias died in March 1619, since many believed the loss of his authority and influence had fatally damaged the Habsburgs.{{Sfn|Wedgwood|1938|pp=81–82}}

By mid-June 1619, the Bohemian army under Thurn was outside [[Vienna]] and although Mansfeld's defeat by imperial forces at [[Battle of Sablat|Sablat]] forced him to return to Prague, Ferdinand's position continued to worsen.{{Sfn|Wedgwood|1938|p=94}} [[Gabriel Bethlen]], Calvinist [[Prince of Transylvania]], invaded Hungary with Ottoman support, although the Habsburgs persuaded them to avoid direct involvement; this was helped when the Ottomans became involved in the [[Polish–Ottoman War (1620–21)|1620 Polish war]], followed by [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–1639)|the 1623 to 1639 conflict with Persia]].{{Sfn|Baramova|2014|pp=121–122}}

On 19 August, the Bohemian Estates rescinded Ferdinand's 1617 election as king; on the 26th, they formally offered the crown to Frederick. Two days later, Ferdinand was elected emperor, making war inevitable if Frederick accepted the Bohemian Crown. Most of Frederick's advisors urged him to reject it, as did the Duke of Savoy, and his father-in-law James I.{{Sfn|Wedgwood|1938|pp=98–99}} The exceptions included [[Christian I, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg|Christian of Anhalt]] and [[Maurice, Prince of Orange|Maurice of Orange]], for whom conflict in Germany was a means to divert Spanish resources from the Netherlands. The Dutch offered subsidies to Frederick and the Protestant Union, helped raise loans for Bohemia, and provided weapons and munitions.{{sfn|Israel|1995b|p=469}}

[[File:Guerre 30 ans 1.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.1|The Catholic counter-offensive; [[Count of Tilly|Tilly]]'s campaign during the Bohemian revolt and Palatine campaign]]

However, wider European support failed to materialise, largely due to lack of enthusiasm for removing a legally elected ruler, regardless of religion.{{Sfn|Wedgwood|1938|pp=98–99}} Although Frederick accepted the crown and entered Prague in October 1619, his support eroded over the next few months. In July 1620, the Protestant Union proclaimed its neutrality, while John George of Saxony backed Ferdinand in return for the cession of [[Lusatia]], and a guarantee of Lutheran rights in Bohemia. Maximilian of Bavaria funded a combined Imperial-Catholic League army led by [[Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly|Count Tilly]] and [[Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, 2nd Count of Bucquoy|Charles of Bucquoy]], which pacified Upper and Lower Austria and occupied western Bohemia before marching on Prague. Defeated by Tilly at the [[Battle of White Mountain]] in November 1620, the Bohemian army disintegrated, and Frederick was forced to flee the country.{{Sfn|Wedgwood|1938|pp=127–129}}

===Palatinate Campaign===
By abandoning Frederick, the German princes had hoped to restrict the dispute to Bohemia, but this was thwarted by Maximilian's dynastic ambitions. In the October 1619 [[Treaty of Munich (1619)|Treaty of Munich]], Ferdinand transferred the Palatinate's electoral vote to Bavaria, and allowed Maximilian to annex the [[Upper Palatinate]].{{Sfn|Stutler|2014|pp=37–38}} Many Protestants had supported Ferdinand because in principle they opposed the deposition of a legally elected ruler, and now objected to Frederick's removal on the same grounds. For Catholics, it presented an opportunity to regain lands and properties lost since 1555, a combination which destabilised large parts of the Empire.{{Sfn|Wedgwood|1938|p=117}}

[[File:Joachim von Sandrart - Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.9|[[Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria]] whose seizure of the Palatinate expanded the war]]

At the same time, the Spanish were drawn into the conflict due to the strategic importance of the Spanish Road for their war in the Netherlands, and its proximity to the Palatinate. When an army led by [[Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba (1585–1635)|Córdoba]] occupied the [[Lower Palatinate]] in October 1619, James I responded to this attack on his son-in-law. English naval forces were sent to threaten Spanish possessions in the Americas and the [[Mediterranean]], while James announced he would declare war if Spanish troops were not withdrawn by spring 1621. These actions were primarily designed to placate his opponents in [[Parliament of England|Parliament]], who considered his pro-Spanish policy a betrayal of the Protestant cause.{{Sfn|Zaller|1974|pp=147–148}} Spanish chief minister [[Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares|Olivares]] correctly interpreted them as an invitation to open negotiations, and in return for an Anglo-Spanish alliance offered to restore Frederick to his Rhineland possessions.{{Sfn|Zaller|1974|pp=152–154}}

Since Frederick's demand for full restitution of his lands and titles was incompatible with the Treaty of Munich, hopes of a negotiated peace quickly evaporated. Despite defeat in Bohemia, Frederick's allies included [[George Frederick, Margrave of Baden-Durlach|Georg Friedrich of Baden]] and [[Christian the Younger of Brunswick|Christian of Brunswick]], while the Dutch provided him with military support after the Eighty Years' War restarted in April 1621 and his father-in-law James funded an army of mercenaries under Mansfeld. However, their failure to co-ordinate effectively led to a series of defeats by Spanish and Catholic League forces, including [[Battle of Wimpfen|Wimpfen]] in May 1622 and [[Battle of Höchst|Höchst]] in June. By November 1622, Spanish and Imperial troops controlled most of the Palatinate, apart from [[Siege of Frankenthal|Frankenthal]], which was held by a small English garrison under Sir [[Horace Vere]]. The remnants of Mansfeld's army took refuge in the Dutch Republic, as did Frederick, who spent most of his time in [[The Hague]] until his death in November 1632.{{Sfn|Spielvogel|2017|p=447}}

At a meeting of the Imperial Diet in February 1623, Ferdinand forced through provisions transferring Frederick's titles, lands, and electoral vote to Maximilian. He did so with support from the Catholic League, despite strong opposition from Protestant members, as well as the Spanish. The Palatinate was clearly lost; in March, James instructed Vere to surrender Frankenthal, while Tilly's victory over Christian of Brunswick at [[Battle of Stadtlohn|Stadtlohn]] in August completed military operations.{{Sfn|Pursell|2003|pp=182–185}} However, Spanish and Dutch involvement in the campaign was a significant step in internationalising the war, while Frederick's removal meant other Protestant princes began discussing armed resistance to preserve their own rights and territories.{{Sfn|Wedgwood|1938|pp=162–164}}

=== Danish intervention (1625–1629) ===
{{Location map many |Lower Saxony |caption=Key locations, 1625–1629 on the map of the modern federal state [[Lower Saxony]] |border=black |width=280 |float=right |relief=yes
|label=Bremen |pos=top |lat_deg=53.083333 |lon_deg=8.8
|label2=Osnabrück |pos2=left |lat2_deg=52.2833 |lon2_deg=8.1464
|label3=Halberstadt |pos3=bottom |lat3_deg=51 |lat3_min=54 |lon3_deg=11 |lon3_min=03
|label4=Lübeck (Duchy of Holstein) |pos4=bottom |lat4_deg=53 |lat4_min=52 |lon4_deg=10 |lon4_min=41
|label5=Magdeburg |pos5=left |lat5_deg=52 |lat5_min=08 |lon5_deg=11 |lon5_min=37
|label6=Hamburg |pos6=left |lat6_deg=53 |lat6_min=35 |lon6_deg=10 |lon6_min=00
|label7=Lutter |pos7=left |lat7_deg=52 |lat7_min=00 |lon7_deg=10 |lon7_min=16
|label8=Verden |pos8=bottom |lat8_deg=52 |lat8_min=55 |lon8_deg=9 |lon8_min=14
|label9=Kassel |pos9=left |lat9_deg=51 |lat9_min=19 |lon9_deg=9 |lon9_min=30
|label10=Wolfenbüttel |pos10=left |lat10_deg=52.262222|lon10_deg=10.636944
}}

With Saxony dominating the [[Upper Saxon Circle]] and [[Brandenburg]] the [[Lower Saxon Circle|Lower]], both ''kreise'' had remained neutral during the campaigns in Bohemia and the Palatinate. However, Frederick's deposition in 1623 meant John George of Saxony and the Calvinist [[George William, Elector of Brandenburg]] became concerned Ferdinand intended to reclaim formerly Catholic bishoprics currently held by Protestants. These fears seemed confirmed when Tilly restored the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Halberstadt]] in early 1625.{{Sfn|Wedgwood|1938|pp=179–181}}

As Duke of Holstein, Christian IV was also a member of the Lower Saxon circle, while the Danish economy relied on the Baltic trade and tolls from traffic through the [[Øresund]].{{Sfn|Lockhart|2007|pp=107–109}} In 1621, Hamburg accepted Danish "supervision", while his son [[Frederick III of Denmark|Frederick]] became joint-administrator of [[Prince-bishopric of Lübeck|Lübeck]], [[Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen|Bremen]], and [[Prince-Bishopric of Verden|Verden]]; possession ensured Danish control of the [[Elbe]] and [[Weser]] rivers.{{Sfn|Murdoch|2000|p=53}}

Ferdinand had paid [[Albrecht von Wallenstein]] for his support against Frederick with estates confiscated from the Bohemian rebels, and now contracted with him to conquer the north on a similar basis. In May 1625, the Lower Saxony ''kreis'' elected Christian their military commander, although not without resistance; Saxony and Brandenburg viewed Denmark and Sweden as competitors, and wanted to avoid either becoming involved in the empire. Attempts to negotiate a peaceful solution failed as the conflict in Germany became part of the wider struggle between France and their Habsburg rivals in Spain and Austria.{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=387}}

In the June 1624 [[Treaty of Compiègne (1624)|Treaty of Compiègne]], France had agreed to subsidise the Dutch war against Spain for a minimum of three years, while in the December 1625 [[Treaty of The Hague (1625)|Treaty of The Hague]], the Dutch and English agreed to finance Danish intervention in the Empire.{{Efn|As well as being brother-in-law to Frederick of the Palatinate, James I was also linked to Christian IV of Denmark, having married his elder sister [[Anne of Denmark]] (1574–1619).{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=382}}}} Hoping to create a wider coalition against Ferdinand, the Dutch invited France, Sweden, Savoy, and the [[Republic of Venice]] to join, but it was overtaken by events.{{Sfn|Davenport|1917|p=295}} In early 1626, [[Cardinal Richelieu]], main architect of the alliance, faced a new Huguenot rebellion at home and in the March [[Treaty of Monzón]], France withdrew from northern Italy, re-opening the Spanish Road.{{Sfn|Wedgwood|1938|p=208}}

[[File:Danish phase Bul Map.png|thumb|left|upright=1.0|Danish intervention]]

Dutch and English subsidies enabled Christian to devise an ambitious three part campaign plan; while he led the main force down the Weser, Mansfeld would attack Wallenstein in [[Archbishopric of Magdeburg|Magdeburg]], supported by forces led by Christian of Brunswick and [[Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel|Maurice of Hesse-Kassel]]. The advance quickly fell apart; Mansfeld was defeated at [[Battle of Dessau Bridge|Dessau Bridge]] in April, and when Maurice refused to support him, Christian of Brunswick fell back on [[Wolfenbüttel]], where he died of disease shortly after. The Danes were comprehensively beaten at [[Battle of Lutter|Lutter]] in August, and Mansfeld's army dissolved following his death in November.{{Sfn|Wedgwood|1938|p=212}}

Many of Christian's German allies, such as [[Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel|Hesse-Kassel]] and Saxony, had little interest in replacing imperial domination with Danish, while few of the subsidies agreed to by the Treaty of The Hague were ever paid. [[Charles I of England]] allowed Christian to recruit up to 9,000 Scottish mercenaries, but they took time to arrive, and while able to slow Wallenstein's advance were insufficient to stop him.{{Sfn|Murdoch|Grosjean|2014|pp=43–44}} By the end of 1627, Wallenstein occupied [[Mecklenburg]], [[Capitulation of Franzburg|Pomerania]], and [[Jutland]], and began making plans to construct a fleet capable of challenging Danish control of the Baltic. He was supported by Spain, for whom it provided an opportunity to open another front against the Dutch.{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=426}}

On 13 May 1628, his deputy [[Hans Georg von Arnim-Boitzenburg|von Arnim]] besieged [[Siege of Stralsund (1628)|Stralsund]], the only port with facilities large enough to build this fleet. However, this threat led [[Gustavus Adolphus]] to send several thousand Scots and Swedish troops to Stralsund, commanded by [[Alexander Leslie]] who was also appointed governor.{{Sfn|Murdoch| Grosjean|2014|pp=48–49}} Von Arnim was forced to lift the siege on 4 August, but three weeks later, Christian suffered another defeat at [[Battle of Wolgast|Wolgast]]. He began negotiations with Wallenstein, who despite his recent victories was concerned by the prospect of Swedish intervention, and thus anxious to make peace.{{Sfn|Lockhart|2007|p=170}}

[[File:Albrecht von Wallenstein.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|[[Albrecht von Wallenstein]] achieved great military success for the Empire but his power threatened both Ferdinand and the German princes.]]

With Austrian resources stretched by the outbreak of the [[War of the Mantuan Succession]], Wallenstein persuaded Ferdinand to agree with relatively lenient terms in the June 1629 [[Treaty of Lübeck]]. Christian retained his German possessions of [[Duchy of Schleswig|Schleswig]] and Holstein, in return for relinquishing Bremen and Verden, and abandoning support for the German Protestants. While Denmark kept Schleswig and Holstein until 1864, this effectively ended its reign as the predominant Nordic state.{{Sfn|Lockhart|2007|p=172}}

Once again, the methods used to obtain victory explain why the war failed to end. Ferdinand paid Wallenstein by letting him confiscate estates, extort ransoms from towns, and allowing his men to plunder the lands they passed through, regardless of whether they belonged to allies or opponents. In early 1628, Ferdinand deposed the hereditary [[Adolf Frederick I, Duke of Mecklenburg|Duke of Mecklenburg]], and appointed Wallenstein in his place, an act which united all German princes in opposition, regardless of religion. This unity was undermined by Maximilian of Bavaria's desire to retain the Palatinate; as a result, the Catholic League argued only for a return to the position prevailing pre-1627, while Protestants wanted that of 1618.{{Sfn|Wedgwood|1938|pp=232–233}}

Made overconfident by success, in March 1629 Ferdinand passed an [[Edict of Restitution]], which required all lands taken from the Catholic church after 1555 to be returned. While technically legal, politically it was extremely unwise, since doing so would alter nearly every single state boundary in north and central Germany, deny the existence of Calvinism and restore Catholicism in areas where it had not been a significant presence for nearly a century. Well aware none of the princes involved would agree, Ferdinand used the device of an imperial [[edict]], once again asserting his right to alter laws without consultation. This new assault on "German liberties" ensured continuing opposition and undermined his previous success.{{Sfn|Wedgwood|1938|pp=242–244}}

At the same time, his Spanish allies were reluctant to antagonise German Protestants as their [[Eighty Years' War, 1621–1648|war in the Spanish Netherlands]] had now shifted in favour of the Dutch Republic. The financial predicament of the Spanish Crown steadily deteriorated in the 1620s, particularly after the [[Dutch West India Company]] captured their [[Spanish treasure fleet|treasure fleet]] at [[Battle in the Bay of Matanzas|Matanzas]] in 1628. The War of the Mantuan Succession further diverted Spanish resources from the Netherlands,{{sfn|Israel|1995b|p=497}} while the loss of [[Siege of 's-Hertogenbosch|'s-Hertogenbosch]] to the [[Dutch States Army|Dutch Army]] under [[Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange|Frederick Henry]] in 1629 caused dismay in Madrid.{{sfn|Israel|1995b|p=511}}

===Sweden invades Germany (1630–1635)===
{{Main|Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War}}
[[File:Strasbourg walter gustave adolphe.JPG|left|thumb|upright=1.0|[[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden]], known as the "Lion of the North", at the [[Battle of Breitenfeld (1631)|Battle of Breitenfeld]] in 1631]]

From 1626 to 1629, Gustavus was engaged in a [[Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629)|war with Poland–Lithuania]], ruled by his Catholic cousin [[Sigismund III Vasa|Sigismund]], who also claimed the Swedish throne and was backed by Ferdinand II. Once this conflict ended, and with only a few minor states like [[Hesse-Kassel]] still openly opposing Ferdinand, Gustavus became an obvious ally for Richelieu.{{Sfn|Maland|1980|pp=98–99}} In September 1629, the latter helped negotiate the [[Truce of Altmark]] between Sweden and Poland, freeing Gustavus to enter the war. Partly a genuine desire to support his Protestant co-religionists, like Christian he also wanted to maximise his share of the Baltic trade that provided much of Sweden's income.{{Sfn|Wedgwood|1938|pp=385–386}}

Following failed negotiations with Ferdinand II, Gustavus landed in [[Duchy of Pomerania|Pomerania]] in June 1630 with nearly 18,000 Swedish troops. Using Stralsund as a bridgehead, he marched south along the [[Oder]] towards [[Szczecin|Stettin]] and coerced [[Bogislaw XIV, Duke of Pomerania]], into agreeing an [[Treaty of Stettin (1630)|alliance]] which secured his interests in Pomerania against his rival Sigismund.{{Sfn|Norrhem|2019|pp=28–29}} As a result, the Poles turned their attention to Russia, initiating the 1632 to 1634 [[Smolensk War]].{{Sfn|Porshnev|1995|p=106}}

However, Swedish expectations of widespread German support proved unrealistic. By the end of 1630, their only new ally was the Administrator of Magdeburg, [[Christian William of Brandenburg|Christian William]] whose capital was under siege by Tilly.{{Sfn|Parker|1997|p=120}} Despite the devastation inflicted by Imperial soldiers, Saxony and Brandenburg had their own ambitions in Pomerania, which clashed with those of Gustavus; previous experience also showed inviting external powers into the Empire was easier than getting them to leave.{{Sfn|O'Connell|1968|pp=253–254}}

[[File:Sack of Magdeburg 1631.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.0|The [[Sack of Magdeburg]] in 1631]]

Gustavus put pressure on Brandenburg by sacking Küstrin and [[Frankfurt an der Oder]], while the [[Sack of Magdeburg]] in May 1631 provided a powerful warning of the consequences of Imperial victory.{{Sfn|Parker|1997|p=128}} Once again, Richelieu used French financial power to bridge differences between the Swedes and the German princes; the 1631 [[Treaty of Bärwalde]] provided funds for the Swedes and their Protestant allies, including Saxony and Brandenburg.{{Sfn|O'Connell|1968|p=256}} These amounted to 400,000 [[Reichstaler]] per year, or one million [[French livre|livres]], plus an additional 120,000 for 1630. While less than 2% of total French income, these payments boosted that of Sweden by more than 25%, and allowed Gustavus to maintain 36,000 troops.{{Sfn|Porshnev|1995|p=38}}

Gustavus used this army to win victories at [[Battle of Breitenfeld (1631)|Breitenfeld]] in September 1631, then [[Battle of Rain|Rain]] in April 1632, where Tilly was killed.{{Sfn|Wedgwood|1938|pp=305–306}} Ferdinand turned once again to Wallenstein, who realised Gustavus was overextended and established himself at [[Fürth]], from where he could threaten his supply lines. This led to the [[Battle of the Alte Veste]] in late August, one of the largest battles of the war. An assault on the Imperial camp outside the town was bloodily repulsed, arguably the greatest blunder committed by Gustavus during his German campaign.{{Sfn|Brzezinski|2001|p=4}}

[[File:Swedish phase map.svg|left|thumb|upright=1.0|Campaigns during the Swedish phase]]

Two months later, the Swedes fought an Imperial army at [[Battle of Lützen (1632)|Lützen]]. Both sides suffered heavy casualties, while Gustavus himself was killed and some Swedish units incurred losses of over 60%.{{Sfn|Wilson|2018|p=89}} Fighting continued until dusk when Wallenstein retreated, abandoning his artillery and wounded.{{Sfn|Wilson|2018|p=89}} Despite their losses, this allowed the Swedes to claim victory, although the result continues to be disputed.{{sfn|Wilson|2018|p=99}}{{Sfn|Brzezinski|2001|p=74}}

After his death, Gustavus' policies were continued by his Chancellor [[Axel Oxenstierna]], and with French backing, Sweden and their German allies formed the [[Heilbronn League]] in April 1633. In July, their combined forces defeated an Imperial army under Bronckhorst-Gronsfeld at [[Battle of Oldendorf|Oldendorf]].{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=523}} Critics claimed this defeat was caused by Wallenstein's failure to support the Bavarians, while rumours spread that he was preparing to switch sides. As a result, Ferdinand II ordered his arrest in February 1634, and on 25th, he was assassinated by his own officers in Cheb.{{Sfn|Wedgwood|1938|pp=220–223}}

The loss of Wallenstein and his organisation left Ferdinand II reliant on Spain for military support. Since their main concern was to re-open the Spanish Road for their campaign against the Dutch, the focus of the war now shifted from the north to the Rhineland and Bavaria. [[Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria]], new Governor of the Spanish Netherlands, raised an army of 18,000 in Italy, which met up with an Imperial force of 15,000 at Donauwörth on 2 September 1634. Four days later, they won a decisive victory at [[Battle of Nördlingen (1634)|Nördlingen]] which destroyed Swedish power in southern Germany and led to the defection of their German allies, who now sought to make peace with the Emperor.{{Sfn|Kamen|2003|pp=385–386}}