Editing Theravada (section)

===Modern history===
[[File:Buddhism-meditation-burma.jpg|thumb|240px|A Burmese man meditates in [[Myanmar]]. The widespread practice of meditation by laypersons is a modern development in Theravāda.]]
In the 19th and 20th centuries, Theravāda Buddhists came into direct contact with western ideologies, religions and modern science. The various responses to this encounter have been called "[[Buddhist modernism]]".<ref>David L. McMahan (2008). ''The Making of Buddhist Modernism.'' Oxford University Press. pp. 5–7, 32–33, 43–52. {{ISBN|978-0-19-988478-0}}.</ref> In the British colonies of [[British Ceylon|Ceylon]] (modern Sri Lanka) and [[British rule in Burma|Burma]] (Myanmar), Buddhist institutions lost their traditional role as the prime providers of education (a role that was often filled by Christian schools).<ref>Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah, ''Buddhism Betrayed?'' The University of Chicago Press, 1992, pp. 35–36.</ref> In response to this, Buddhist organizations were founded which sought to preserve Buddhist scholarship and provide a Buddhist education.<ref>Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah, ''Buddhism Betrayed?'' The University of Chicago Press, 1992, pp. 63–64.</ref> [[Anagarika Dhammapala]], [[Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera]], [[Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thera]] and [[Henry Steel Olcott]] (one of the first American western converts to Buddhism) were some of the main figures of the Sri Lankan Buddhist revival.<ref>Kemper, Steven (2015) ''Rescued from the Nation: Anagarika Dharmapala and the Buddhist World'', p. 6. University of Chicago Press.</ref> Two new monastic orders were formed in the 19th century, the [[Amarapura Nikāya]] and the [[Rāmañña Nikāya]].<ref>De Silva, K. M. (1981), p. 341.</ref>

In Burma, an influential modernist figure was king [[Mindon Min]] (1808–1878), known for his patronage of the [[Fifth Buddhist council]] (1871) and the [[Tripiṭaka tablets at Kuthodaw Pagoda]] (still the world's largest book) with the intention of preserving the Buddha Dhamma. Burma also saw the growth of the "[[Vipassana movement]]", which focused on reviving Buddhist meditation and [[Pariyatti|doctrinal learning]]. [[Ledi Sayadaw]] (1846–1923) was one of the key figures in this movement.<ref name="insight">{{Citation |last=Braun |first=Erik |title=The Many Lives of Insight: The Abhidhamma and transformations in Theravada meditation |url=https://bulletin.hds.harvard.edu/the-many-lives-of-insight/ |access-date=1 April 2023 |publisher=[[Harvard Divinity School]]}}</ref> After independence, Myanmar held the [[Sixth Buddhist council]] ([[Vesak]] 1954 to Vesak 1956) to create a new redaction of the [[Pāli Canon]], which was then published by the government in 40 volumes. The Vipassana movement continued to grow after independence, becoming an international movement with centers around the world. Influential meditation teachers of the post-independence era include [[U Nārada|U Narada]], [[Mahasi Sayadaw]], [[U Pandita|Sayadaw U Pandita]], [[Nyanaponika Thera]], [[Webu Sayadaw]], [[Sayagyi U Ba Khin|U Ba Khin]] and his student [[S. N. Goenka|S.N. Goenka.]]

Meanwhile, in Thailand (the only Theravāda nation to retain its independence throughout the colonial era), the religion became much more centralized, [[Bureaucracy|bureaucratized]] and controlled by the state after a series of reforms promoted by Thai kings of the [[Chakri dynasty]]. King [[Mongkut]] (r. 1851–1868) and his successor [[Chulalongkorn]] (1868–1910) were especially involved in centralizing sangha reforms. Under these kings, the sangha was organized into a hierarchical bureaucracy led by the [[Sangha Supreme Council|Sangha Council of Elders]] ([[Pali language|Pali]]: ''Mahāthera Samāgama''), the highest body of the Thai sangha.<ref name=":14">Yoneo Ishii (1986). ''Sangha, State, and Society: Thai Buddhism in History'', p. 69. University of Hawaii Press.</ref> Mongkut also led the creation of a new monastic order, the [[Dhammayuttika Nikaya|Dhammayuttika]] Nikaya, which kept a stricter monastic discipline than the rest of the Thai sangha (this included not using money, not storing up food and not taking milk in the evening).<ref name=":8">Patit Paban Mishra (2010). ''The History of Thailand,'' p. 77. Greenwood History of Modern Nations Series.</ref><ref>Jermsawatdi, Promsak (1979). ''Thai Art with Indian Influences,'' pp. 38-39. Abhinav Publications.</ref> The Dhammayuttika movement was characterized by an emphasis on the original Pali Canon and a rejection of Thai folk beliefs which were seen as irrational.<ref name=":18">Yoneo Ishii (1986). ''Sangha, State, and Society: Thai Buddhism in History'', p. 156. University of Hawaii Press.</ref> Under the leadership of Prince [[Vajirananavarorasa|Wachirayan Warorot]], a new education and examination system was introduced for Thai monks.<ref name=":15">Yoneo Ishii (1986). ''Sangha, State, and Society: Thai Buddhism in History'', p. 76. University of Hawaii Press.</ref>
[[File:AjahnChahSangha.jpg|thumb|240px|Thai Forest teacher [[Ajahn Chah]] with [[Ajahn Sumedho]] (front right), [[Ajahn Pasanno]] (rear and left of Sumedho) and other monastics (1980)]]
The 20th century also saw the growth of "forest traditions" which focused on forest living and strict monastic discipline. The main forest movements of this era are the [[Sri Lankan Forest Tradition]] and the [[Thai Forest Tradition]], founded by [[Ajahn Mun]] (1870–1949) and his students.<ref>Tambiah, Stanley Jeyaraja (1984). ''The Buddhist Saints of the Forest and the Cult of Amulets,'' pp. 84-88. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-27787-7}}.</ref>

Theravāda Buddhism in Cambodia and Laos went through similar experiences in the modern era. Both had to endure French colonialism, destructive civil wars and oppressive communist governments. Under [[French protectorate of Cambodia|French Rule]], French indologists of the [[French School of the Far East|École française d'Extrême-Orient]] became involved in the reform of Buddhism, setting up institutions for the training of Cambodian and Lao monks, such as the Ecole de Pali which was founded in Phnom Penh in 1914''.''<ref>Ladwig, Patrice (2017). ''Contemporary Lao Buddhism. Ruptured histories''. In: Jerryson, Michael (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Contemporary Buddhism, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 274-296.</ref> While the Khmer Rouge effectively destroyed Cambodia's Buddhist institutions, after the end of the communist regime the Cambodian Sangha was re-established by monks who had returned from exile.<ref name="Harris 2001 p=75">Harris, Ian (August 2001), ''"Sangha Groupings in Cambodia",'' Buddhist Studies Review, UK Association for Buddhist Studies, 18 (I): 73–106.</ref> In contrast, communist rule in Laos was less destructive since the [[Pathet Lao]] sought to make use of the sangha for political ends by imposing direct state control.<ref>Morev, L. (1998). ''"Religion, state and society in contemporary Laos"'' in "Religion, State and Society" 26:1, pp. 31–38.</ref> During the late 1980s and 1990s, the official attitudes toward Buddhism began to liberalise in Laos and there was a resurgence of traditional Buddhist activities such as merit-making and doctrinal study.
[[File:Global_Pagoda,Gorai,Meera_Rd-Bhayandar_-_panoramio_(4).jpg|thumb|240x240px|[[Global Vipassana Pagoda]], Maharashtra, India. S.N. Goenka laid the foundation for the structure in 2000 and the pagoda opened in 2009. Regular meditation courses are held at the complex.]]
The modern era also saw the spread of Theravāda Buddhism around the world and the revival of the religion in places where it remains a minority faith. Some of the major events of the spread of modern Theravāda include:

*The 20th-century Nepalese Theravāda movement which introduced Theravāda Buddhism to [[Nepal]] and was led by prominent figures such as [[Dharmaditya Dharmacharya]], [[Bauddha Rishi Mahapragya|Mahapragya]], [[Pragyananda Mahasthavir|Pragyananda]] and [[Dhammalok Mahasthavir]].<ref>LeVine, Sarah; Gellner, David N. (2009). ''Rebuilding Buddhism: The Theravada Movement in Twentieth-Century Nepal,'' pp. 37, 48, 50. Harvard University Press.</ref>
*The establishment of some of the first Theravāda Viharas in the Western world, such as the [[London Buddhist Vihara]] (1926), [[Das Buddhistische Haus]] in Berlin (1957) and the Washington Buddhist Vihara in Washington, DC (1965).
*The founding of the [[Bengal Buddhist Association]] (1892) and the Dharmankur Vihar (1900) in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] by the Bengali monk [[Kripasaran]] Mahasthavir, which were key events in the Bengali Theravāda revival.<ref>Ven. BD Dipananda (2013). ''[https://www.buddhistdoor.net/features/the-revival-of-buddhism-in-indo-bangla-territory-a-new-perspective The Revival of Buddhism in Indo-Bangla Territory: A New Perspective.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117193734/https://www.buddhistdoor.net/features/the-revival-of-buddhism-in-indo-bangla-territory-a-new-perspective |date=17 January 2021 }}'' Buddhistdoor International.</ref>
*The founding of the [[Maha Bodhi Society]] in 1891 by [[Anagarika Dharmapala]] which focused on the conservation and restoration of important Indian Buddhist sites, such as [[Bodh Gaya]] and [[Sarnath]].<ref name="Jerryson, Michael K. p. 41">Jerryson, Michael K. (ed.) ''The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism'', p. 41.</ref><ref name="Ahir">{{Citation |last=Ahir|first=D.C.|title=Buddhism in Modern India|publisher=Satguru|year=1991|isbn=81-7030-254-4}}</ref> 
*The introduction of Theravāda to other Southeast Asian nations like Singapore, [[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]]. Especially with Ven. [[K. Sri Dhammananda]] missionary efforts among English-speaking Chinese communities. In addition, the establishment of the [[Indonesian Theravāda Saṅgha]] in 1976 and the [[Theravada Buddhist Council of Malaysia|Theravāda Buddhist Council of Malaysia]] in 2012 also signaled the revival of Theravāda in both countries.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wowor|first=Cornelis|title=Awal Sangha Theravada Indonesia|url=https://samaggi-phala.or.id/sangha-theravada-indonesia/sekilas-sti/awal-sangha-theravada-indonesia-2/|website=Samaggi Phala|access-date=2024-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=TBCM|url=https://www.tbcm.org.my/about-tbcm|website=Theravada Buddhist Council of Malaysia|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-09-13}}</ref>
*The return of Western Theravādin monks trained in the Thai Forest Tradition to western countries and the subsequent founding of monasteries led by western monastics, such as [[Abhayagiri Buddhist Monastery]], [[Chithurst Buddhist Monastery]], [[Metta Forest Monastery]], [[Amaravati Buddhist Monastery]], [[Birken Forest Buddhist Monastery]], [[Bodhinyana Monastery]] and [[Santacittarama]].
*The spread of the [[Vipassana movement]] around the world by the efforts of people like [[Mother Sayamagyi]], [[S. N. Goenka|S.N. Goenka]], [[Anagarika Munindra]], [[Joseph Goldstein (writer)|Joseph Goldstein]], [[Jack Kornfield]], [[Sharon Salzberg]], [[Dipa Ma]], and [[Ruth Denison]].
*The Vietnamese Theravāda movement, led by figures such as Ven. Hộ-Tông (Vansarakkhita).<ref>Huynh Kim Lan (2015). ''[http://dr.lib.sjp.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1678?show=full Theravāda Buddhism in Vietnam.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924142729/http://dr.lib.sjp.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1678?show=full |date=24 September 2021 }}'' Proceedings of 10th National Conference on Buddhist Studies of Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, [[University of Sri Jayewardenepura]], Nugegoda, 73.</ref>