Editing Tetraethyllead (section)

== In motor fuel ==
TEL was extensively used as a [[gasoline additive]] beginning in the 1920s,<ref name=Kovarik2005 /> wherein it served as an effective [[antiknock agent]] and reduced exhaust [[Poppet valve|valve]] and [[valve seat]] wear. Concerns were raised in reputable journals of likely health outcomes of fine particles of lead in the atmosphere as early as 1924. <ref name="Seyferth1">{{cite journal |last1=Seyferth |first1=Dietmar |title=The Rise and Fall of Tetraethyllead. 1. Discovery and Slow Development in European Universities, 1853−1920 |journal=Organometallics |date=June 2003 |volume=22 |issue=12 |pages=2346–2357 |doi=10.1021/om030245v |doi-access= }}</ref><ref name="Seyferthb">{{cite journal |last1=Seyferth |first1=Dietmar |title=The Rise and Fall of Tetraethyllead. 2. |journal=Organometallics |date=December 2003 |volume=22 |issue=25 |pages=5154–5178 |doi=10.1021/om030621b |url=http://www.hvonstorch.de/klima/pdf/blei/seyferth_2003.pdf |access-date=7 October 2018 |archive-date=8 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008022721/http://www.hvonstorch.de/klima/pdf/blei/seyferth_2003.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36628530 |title=A New Automobile Fuel |newspaper=[[The Advertiser (Adelaide)]] |location=South Australia |date=16 January 1924 |access-date=25 April 2017 |page=15 |via=National Library of Australia |archive-date=13 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240713180337/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/36628530 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Valve wear preventive ===
Tetraethyllead helps cool intake valves and is an excellent buffer against microwelds forming between exhaust valves and their [[Valve seat|seats]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imperialclub.com/Repair/Lit/Master/291/page13.htm|title=1972 Imperial & Chrysler Engine Performance Facts & Fixes Service Book (Session 291)|website=Online Imperial Club|access-date=31 July 2011|archive-date=27 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927095854/http://www.imperialclub.com/Repair/Lit/Master/291/page13.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Once these valves reopen, the microwelds pull apart and abrade the valves and seats, leading to valve recession. When TEL began to be phased out, the automotive industry began specifying hardened valve seats and upgraded materials which allow for high wear resistance without requiring lead.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imperialclub.com/Repair/Lit/Master/302/page04.htm|title=1973 Imperial and Chrysler Clean Air System Reference Service Repair Book from the Master Technician's Service Conference (Session 302)|website=Online Imperial Club|access-date=31 July 2011|archive-date=27 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927095859/http://www.imperialclub.com/Repair/Lit/Master/302/page04.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Antiknock agent ===
A gasoline-fueled reciprocating engine requires fuel of sufficient [[octane rating]] to prevent uncontrolled combustion (pre-ignition and [[engine knock|detonation]]).<ref name="Seyferth" /> Antiknock agents allow the use of higher [[compression ratio]]s for greater [[fuel efficiency|efficiency]]<ref name="SAEtrans-hce1959">{{cite tech report |last1=Caris |first1=D. F. |last2=Nelson |first2=E. E. |year=1959 |title=A New Look at High Compression Engines |number=590015 |doi=10.4271/590015 |publisher=Society of Automotive Engineers }}</ref> and peak [[power (physics)|power]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Loeb|first1=A. P.|title=Birth of the Kettering Doctrine: Fordism, Sloanism and Tetraethyl Lead|journal=Business and Economic History|date=Fall 1995|volume=24|issue=2|url=http://www.thebhc.org/sites/default/files/beh/BEHprint/v024n1/p0072-p0087.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151027191244/http://www.thebhc.org/sites/default/files/beh/BEHprint/v024n1/p0072-p0087.pdf|archive-date=2015-10-27|url-status = live}}</ref> Adding varying amounts of additives to gasoline allowed easy, inexpensive control of octane ratings. TEL offered the business advantage of being commercially profitable because its use for this purpose could be patented.<ref name=Kovarik2005 /> Aviation fuels with TEL used in WWII reached octane ratings of 150 to enable turbocharged and supercharged engines such as the [[Rolls-Royce Merlin]] and [[Rolls-Royce Griffon|Griffon]] to reach high horsepower ratings at altitude.<ref>{{cite book|title = I Kept No Diary|author = F. R. Banks|date = 1978|publisher = Airlife Publishing, Ltd.|isbn = 978-0-9504543-9-9}}</ref> In military aviation, TEL manipulation allowed a range of different fuels to be tailored for particular flight conditions.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

In 1935 a license to produce TEL was given to [[IG Farben]], enabling the newly formed German {{lang|de|[[Luftwaffe]]}} to use high-octane gasoline for high altitude flight. A company, Ethyl GmbH, was formed that produced TEL at two sites in Germany with a government contract from 10 June 1936.<ref>[[Rainer Karlsch]], Raymond G. Stokes. ''"Faktor Öl". Die Mineralölwirtschaft in Deutschland 1859–1974.'' C. H. Beck, München, 2003, {{ISBN|3-406-50276-8}}, p. 187.</ref>

In 1938 the United Kingdom [[Air Ministry]] contracted with [[Imperial Chemical Industries|ICI]] for the construction and operation of a TEL plant. A site was chosen at Holford Moss, near Plumley in Cheshire. Construction started in April 1939 and TEL was being produced by September 1940.<ref name="Plumley TEL Works">{{cite web |title=Northwich |url=https://www.octelamlwch.co.uk/northwich/ |website=Octel Bromine Works |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111091720/https://www.octelamlwch.co.uk/northwich/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== "Ethyl Fluid" ===
[[File:EthylCorporationSign.jpg|thumb|upright|280px|Sign on an antique gasoline pump advertising tetraethyllead by the [[Ethyl Corporation]]]]
For mixing with raw gasoline, TEL was most commonly supplied in the form of "Ethyl Fluid", consisting of TEL blended with 1,2-dichloroethane and 1,2-dibromoethane, which prevent lead from building up in the engine. Ethyl Fluid also contained a reddish dye to distinguish treated from untreated gasoline and discourage the use of leaded gasoline for other purposes such as cleaning.<ref name="redrum">{{cite journal |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/om030621b |title=The Rise and Fall of Tetraethyllead |year=2003 |doi=10.1021/om030621b |last1=Seyferth |first1=Dietmar |journal=Organometallics |volume=22 |issue=25 |pages=5154–5178 |access-date=14 February 2023 |archive-date=16 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316072417/https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/om030621b |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the 1920s, before safety procedures were strengthened, 17 workers for the [[Ethyl Corporation]], [[DuPont (1802–2017)|DuPont]], and [[Standard Oil]] died from the effects of exposure to lead.<ref name="Kovarik2005" /> The grim news was not well received by US legislators and a brief ban was put into place. However, it was lifted on recommendation of the United States [[Surgeon General of the United States|Surgeon General]] and a panel of scientists in 1929, after extensive [[Lobbying in the United States|lobbying]] efforts by the aforementioned companies.<ref name=Kovarik2005 /> It would be another half a century, until the 1980s, that a similar effort was made to rein in the additive, this time spearheaded by the EPA. This was done not because of its being responsible for the worst environmental catastrophe in recorded history. Instead, the ban arose out of industry concerns over evidence that lead fouled up the newly invented catalytic converters.<ref name=":3" />

Ethyl Fluid's formulation consisted of:<ref name="Seyferth" />
* 61.45% tetraethyllead
* 18.80% [[1,2-dichloroethane]]
* 17.85% [[1,2-dibromoethane]]
* 1.90% inerts, preservatives, and dyes

It was found that dichloroethane and dibromoethane act in a synergistic manner, in that approximately equal quantities of both provide the best scavenging ability, thus preventing engines from fouling up due to deposits of inorganic lead within the pistons and exhausts.<ref name="Seyferth" />

=== Phaseout and ban ===
In most industrialized countries, a phaseout of TEL from road vehicle fuels was completed by the early 2000s because of concerns over air and soil lead levels and the [[Bioaccumulation|accumulative]] neurotoxicity [[Lead poisoning|of lead]]. In the European Union, tetraethyllead has been classified as a [[Substance of Very High Concern]] and placed on the Candidate List for Authorization under [[Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals|Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals]] (REACH).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/0b417b76-b533-42a1-9bd2-519f1dc1990d |title=Inclusion of Substances of Very High Concern in the Candidate List – Decision of the European Chemicals Agency ED/169/2012 |access-date=28 August 2017 |archive-date=28 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828225609/https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/0b417b76-b533-42a1-9bd2-519f1dc1990d |url-status=live }}</ref> Potential use of TEL would need to be authorized through the [[REACH authorisation procedure|REACH authorization procedure]]. While not a complete ban, it introduces significant obligations such as a mandatory analysis of alternatives and socioeconomic analysis.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

The use of [[catalytic converter]]s, mandated in the United States for 1975 and later model-year cars to meet tighter emissions regulations, started a gradual phase-out of leaded gasoline in the U.S.<ref name=Kitman /> The need for TEL was lessened by several advances in automotive engineering and petroleum chemistry. Safer methods for making higher-octane blending stocks such as [[reformate]] and [[iso-octane]] reduced the need to rely on TEL, as did other antiknock additives of varying toxicity including metallic compounds such as [[methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl]] (MMT) as well as [[oxygenate]]s including [[Methyl tert-butyl ether|methyl ''tert''-butyl ether]] (MTBE), [[tert-Amyl methyl ether|''tert''-amyl methyl ether]] (TAME), and [[Ethyl tert-butyl ether|ethyl ''tert''-butyl ether]] (ETBE).{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

The first country to completely ban leaded gasoline was [[Japan]] in 1986.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hofverberg |first1=Elin |title=The History of the Elimination of Leaded Gasoline |work=In Custodia Legis: Law Librarians of Congress |url=https://blogs.loc.gov/law/2022/04/the-history-of-the-elimination-of-leaded-gasoline/ |access-date=4 January 2023 |date=14 April 2022 |archive-date=13 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240713180336/https://blogs.loc.gov/law/2022/04/the-history-of-the-elimination-of-leaded-gasoline/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Since January 1993, all gasoline powered cars sold in the [[European Union]] and the [[United Kingdom]] have been required to use unleaded fuel. This was to comply with the [[European emission standards|Euro 1 emission standards]] which mandated that all new cars to be fitted with a [[catalytic converter]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Euro emissions standards |url=https://www.theaa.com/driving-advice/fuels-environment/euro-emissions-standards |publisher=[[The AA]] |access-date=31 December 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231192512/https://www.theaa.com/driving-advice/fuels-environment/euro-emissions-standards |url-status=live }}</ref> Unleaded fuel was first introduced in the United Kingdom in June 1986.<ref>{{cite news |title=Throwback Thursday 1989: the switchover to unleaded petrol |url=https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/throwback-thursday-1989-switchover-unleaded-petrol |access-date=31 December 2022 |work=Autocar |language=en |archive-date=31 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231202830/https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/throwback-thursday-1989-switchover-unleaded-petrol |url-status=live }}</ref>

Leaded gasoline was removed from the forecourts in the United Kingdom on January 1, 2000, and a Lead Replacement Petrol was introduced although this was largely withdrawn by 2003 due to dwindling sales.<ref>{{cite news |first=Andrew |last=Clark |title=Petrol for older cars about to disappear |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2002/aug/15/oil.business |work=The Guardian |date=15 August 2002 |language=en |access-date=1 January 2023 |archive-date=29 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229112618/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2002/aug/15/oil.business |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Guide to lead replacement petrol (LRP) |publisher=The AA |url=https://www.theaa.com/driving-advice/fuels-environment/lrp |access-date=1 January 2023 |archive-date=1 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230101145332/https://www.theaa.com/driving-advice/fuels-environment/lrp |url-status=live }}</ref> An exemption to the ban exists for owners of classic cars.{{cn|date=January 2023}}

Vehicles designed and built to run on leaded fuel often require modification to run on unleaded gasoline. These modifications fall into two categories: those required for physical compatibility with unleaded fuel, and those performed to compensate for the relatively low octane of early unleaded fuels. Physical compatibility requires the installation of [[Hardening (metallurgy)|hardened]] exhaust valves and seats. Compatibility with reduced octane was addressed by reducing compression, generally by installing thicker cylinder [[head gasket]]s and/or rebuilding the engine with compression-reducing pistons, although modern high-octane unleaded gasoline has eliminated the need to decrease compression ratios.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

Leaded gasoline remained legal as of late 2014<ref name=corrupt-executives>{{cite news |first=Lynne |last=Peeples |date=August 9, 2014 |title=Corrupt Executives Sent To Prison For Pumping Toxic Leaded Fuel Overseas |work=Huffington Post |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/08/09/leaded-gas-corruption-innospec_n_5662418.html |access-date=20 February 2020 |archive-date=18 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618025101/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/08/09/leaded-gas-corruption-innospec_n_5662418.html |url-status=live }}</ref> in parts of [[Algeria]], [[Iraq]], [[Yemen]], [[Myanmar]], [[North Korea]], and [[Afghanistan]].<ref>{{cite web|title=UNEP 10th general meeting strategy presentation |url=http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/10gpm_CHpresentation_strategy.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203023740/http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/10gpm_CHpresentation_strategy.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-12-03}}</ref><ref name=leadgroup>{{cite web |url= http://www.lead.org.au/fs/fst27.html |title= Countries where Leaded Petrol is Possibly Still Sold for Road Use |date= 17 June 2011 |author= Robert Taylor |publisher= The LEAD Group |access-date= 12 April 2007 |archive-date= 19 January 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120119144013/http://www.lead.org.au/fs/fst27.html |url-status= live }}</ref>{{update inline|date=May 2021}} North Korea and Myanmar purchased their TEL from China, while Algeria, Iraq, and Yemen purchased it from the specialty chemical company [[Innospec]], the world's sole remaining legal manufacturer of TEL.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.innospecinc.com/our-markets/octane-additives/octane-additives|title=Octane Additives|website=Innospec|access-date=11 November 2019|archive-date=11 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191111221654/https://www.innospecinc.com/our-markets/octane-additives/octane-additives|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2011 several Innospec executives were charged and imprisoned for bribing various government state-owned oil companies to approve the sale of their TEL products.<ref name=leadgroup /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcpaprofessor.com/first-enforcement-action-of-2011-involves-a-former-executive-officer|title=First Enforcement Action of 2011 Involves a Former Executive Officer|work=FCPA Professor|date=2011-01-25|access-date=21 December 2015|archive-date=22 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222145443/http://www.fcpaprofessor.com/first-enforcement-action-of-2011-involves-a-former-executive-officer|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{As of|2016|6}} the [[United Nations Environment Programme|UNEP]]-sponsored phase-out was nearly complete: only Algeria, Iraq, and Yemen continued widespread use of leaded gasoline, although not exclusively.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/17542/MapWorldLead_March2017.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115235249/http://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/17542/MapWorldLead_March2017.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y|url-status=dead|archive-date=2017-11-15|publisher=Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles|title=Leaded Petrol Phase-out: Global Status as at March 2017|access-date=2018-04-28}}</ref> In July 2021, Algeria had halted its sale.<ref name="cbc-Aug2021" />

==== Leaded-fuel bans ====
{{morerefs-section|date=May 2021}}
Leaded-fuel bans for road vehicles came into effect as follows:
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===== Europe =====
*Armenia: 2001<ref>{{cite web|title=ՀՀ կառավորության որոշում 913 29.09.2001|language=hy|url=https://www.arlis.am/DocumentView.aspx?DocID=47470}}</ref>
*Austria: 1989
*Belarus: 1998
*Bulgaria: 2002
*Bosnia and Herzegovina: 2009
*Croatia: 2006
*Cyprus: 2004
*Czech Republic: 2001<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L4_VAgAAQBAJ|title=OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Czech Republic 2005|date=11 October 2005|publisher=OECD Publishing|via=Google Books|isbn=9789264011793|access-date=15 August 2016|archive-date=13 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240713180336/https://books.google.com/books?id=L4_VAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Denmark: 1994<ref>{{cite web|title=Regulering af brændstoffer|language=da|url=http://mst.dk/borger/luftforurening/biler-busser-og-andre-koeretoejer/regulering-af-braendstoffer/|access-date=13 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811161933/http://mst.dk/borger/luftforurening/biler-busser-og-andre-koeretoejer/regulering-af-braendstoffer/|archive-date=11 August 2014}}</ref>
*[[European Union]]: 1 January 2000<ref>[[European Union]] Member States which had not already withdrawn it from sale experienced the EU-wide ban from 1 January 2000. Earlier regulation had prevented the sale or production of cars using leaded petrol after 1992.</ref>
*Finland: 1994<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.neste.com/sites/default/files/attachments/bensiiniopas_2015.pdf|title=Bensiiniopas|language=fi|access-date=28 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151009070249/https://www.neste.com/sites/default/files/attachments/bensiiniopas_2015.pdf|archive-date=9 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
*France: 2000<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OYbVAgAAQBAJ&q=oecd+environmental+performance+reviews+france+leaded&pg=PA98|title=OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: France 2005|isbn=9789264009141|date=2005-09-26|publisher=OECD|access-date=20 October 2020|archive-date=13 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240713180351/https://books.google.com/books?id=OYbVAgAAQBAJ&q=oecd+environmental+performance+reviews+france+leaded&pg=PA98#v=snippet&q=oecd%20environmental%20performance%20reviews%20france%20leaded&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Germany: 1996<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.zeit.de/mobilitaet/2013-11/bleifrei-benzin/komplettansicht|title=Stirbt das Blei, dann lebt der Wald|trans-title=If lead dies, the forest lives|date=8 November 2013|newspaper=Die Zeit|language=de|access-date=10 March 2018|archive-date=11 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180311140700/http://www.zeit.de/mobilitaet/2013-11/bleifrei-benzin/komplettansicht|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Gibraltar: 2001 <ref>{{cite journal |title=Motor Fuel (Composition and Content) Act 2001 |journal=Gibraltar Laws |date=April 5, 2001}}</ref>
*Greece: 2002<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hWt0uW_a2GIC|title=OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Greece 2009|date=15 March 2010|publisher=OECD Publishing|via=Google Books|isbn=9789264061330}}</ref>
*Hungary: 1999
*Ireland: 1 January 2000
*Italy: 1 January 2002<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q4bYAgAAQBAJ|title=OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Italy 2002|date=29 January 2003|publisher=OECD Publishing|via=Google Books|isbn=9789264199163|access-date=15 August 2016|archive-date=13 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240713182105/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q4bYAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Malta: 2003
*Monaco: 2000
*Netherlands: 1998<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G1rWAgAAQBAJ&q=oecd+environmental+performance+reviews+norway+leaded&pg=PA207|title=OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Netherlands 2003|isbn=9789264101005|date=2003-06-02|publisher=OECD|access-date=20 October 2020|archive-date=13 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240713182105/https://books.google.com/books?id=G1rWAgAAQBAJ&q=oecd+environmental+performance+reviews+norway+leaded&pg=PA207#v=onepage&q=oecd%20environmental%20performance%20reviews%20norway%20leaded&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Norway: 1997
*Poland: December 2000<ref>{{cite web|title=Zakończenie produkcji Etyliny 94|language=pl|date=12 December 2000|url=https://www.orlen.pl/PL/RelacjeInwestorskie/RaportyBiezace/Strony/Zako%C5%84czenieprodukcjiEtyli.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022214134/https://www.orlen.pl/PL/RelacjeInwestorskie/RaportyBiezace/Strony/Zako%C5%84czenieprodukcjiEtyli.aspx|archive-date=22 October 2020}}</ref>
*Slovenia: 2001<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FOrUeREpU5IC|title=OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Slovenia 2012|date=6 June 2012|publisher=OECD Publishing|via=Google Books|isbn=9789264169265|access-date=15 August 2016|archive-date=13 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240713182106/https://books.google.com/books?id=FOrUeREpU5IC|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Spain: 1 August 2001<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.minetur.gob.es/energia/petroleo/Carburantes/Paginas/informacion.aspx|title=Prohibición de la venta de gasolina con plomo|language=es|publisher=Ministerio de Industria, Energía y Turismo|access-date=2 February 2018|archive-date=4 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161004035008/http://www.minetur.gob.es/energia/petroleo/Carburantes/Paginas/informacion.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Portugal: 1999
*Romania: 2005<ref>{{cite news|title=Dispare benzina cu plumb|language=ro|date=27 July 2004|newspaper=[[Evenimentul Zilei]]|url=http://www.evz.ro/detalii/stiri/dispare-benzina-cu-plumb-657363.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729085342/http://www.evz.ro/detalii/stiri/dispare-benzina-cu-plumb-657363.html|archive-date=29 July 2013}}</ref>
*Russia: 2003<ref>{{cite web|script-title=ru:Постановление ГД ФС РФ от 15 November 2002 N 3302-III ГД О проекте Федерального закона N 209067-3 "Об ограничении оборота этилированного бензина в Российской Федерации"|language=ru|url=http://www.lawrussia.ru/texts/legal_149/doc149a777x242.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729085322/http://www.lawrussia.ru/texts/legal_149/doc149a777x242.htm|archive-date=29 July 2013|url-status=dead|access-date=24 March 2013|trans-title=Resolution of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation of 15 November 2002 N 3302-III of the State Duma on the Draft Federal Law N 209067-3 "On Limiting the Turnover of Leaded Petrol in the Russian Federation" }}</ref>
*Serbia: 2010<ref>{{cite news | title=Zbogom olovnom benzinu! | trans-title=Goodbye to leaded gasoline! | date=2010-06-08 | author=A. Muslibegović | language=sr | url=http://www.novosti.rs/vesti/naslovna/aktuelno.69.html:275721-Zbogom-olovnom-benzinu | access-date=6 March 2018 | archive-date=6 June 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606221634/http://www.novosti.rs/vesti/naslovna/aktuelno.69.html:275721-Zbogom-olovnom-benzinu | url-status=live }}</ref>
*Sweden: 1995<ref>{{Cite web |date=1995-01-20 |title=Blyad bensin förbjuds från 1 mars |trans-title=Leaded petrol is banned from 1 March |url=https://www.dn.se/arkiv/inrikes/blyad-bensin-forbjuds-fran-1-mars/ |access-date=2022-09-08 |website=[[Dagens Nyheter]] |language=sv |archive-date=8 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908114748/https://www.dn.se/arkiv/inrikes/blyad-bensin-forbjuds-fran-1-mars/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
*Switzerland: 2000
*Ukraine: 2003
*United Kingdom: 1 January 2000<ref>{{cite news|title=Four-star petrol banned|date=1 December 1998|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|publisher=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/225275.stm|access-date=2 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810025149/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/225275.stm|archive-date=10 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
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===== North America =====
*Anguilla: 1998
*Antigua and Barbuda: 1991
*Aruba: 1997
*Bahamas: 1996
*Belize: 1997
*Bermuda: 1990
*Cayman Islands: 1999
*Canada: December 1990<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 9216473 | volume=43 | issue=7 | title=Decline in blood lead in Ontario children correlated to decreasing consumption of leaded gasoline, 1983–1992 | year=1997 | vauthors=Wang ST, Pizzolato S, Demshar HP, Smith LF | journal=Clinical Chemistry | pages=1251–52| doi=10.1093/clinchem/43.7.1251 | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/climate-and-environment/last-country-on-earth-to-use-leaded-gasoline-in-cars-bans-its-sale-1.5573127|title=Last country on Earth to use leaded gasoline in cars bans its sale|date=3 September 2021|access-date=2 August 2022|archive-date=2 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802213617/https://www.ctvnews.ca/climate-and-environment/last-country-on-earth-to-use-leaded-gasoline-in-cars-bans-its-sale-1.5573127|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Costa Rica: 1996<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nacion.com/ciencia/medio-ambiente/combustibles-libres-de-plomo-y-bajos-en-azufre/FDVTM34755CUTO3EIL26A4PTDU/story/|title=Combustibles: Libres de plomo y bajos en azufre|language=es|trans-title=Fuels: Lead free and low in sulfur|date=8 April 2016|access-date=19 November 2021|archive-date=13 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240713182107/https://www.nacion.com/ciencia/medio-ambiente/combustibles-libres-de-plomo-y-bajos-en-azufre/FDVTM34755CUTO3EIL26A4PTDU/story/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Dominican Republic: 1999
*El Salvador: 1992
*Guatemala: 1991
*Haiti: 1998
*Honduras: 1996
*Jamaica: 2000
*Mexico: 1998
*Nicaragua: 1995
*Panama: 2002<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.panamaamerica.com.pa/economia/gasolina-con-plomo-tiene-los-dias-contados-24656|title=Gasolina con plomo tiene los días contados|language=es|trans-title=Leaded gasoline has its days numbered|date=6 October 2001|access-date=19 November 2021|archive-date=19 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119071217/https://www.panamaamerica.com.pa/economia/gasolina-con-plomo-tiene-los-dias-contados-24656|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Trinidad and Tobago: 2000
*United States (including Puerto Rico): 1 January 1996
**California: 1992
{{Col-break}}

===== South America =====
*Argentina: 1998
*Bolivia: 1995<ref name="PMC4643815">{{cite journal |journal=Science Advances |date=6 March 2015 |volume=1 |issue=2 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1400196 |pmc=4643815 |pmid=26601147 |title=Pb pollution from leaded gasoline in South America in the context of a 2000-year metallurgical history |first1=Anja |last1=Eichler |first2=Gabriela |last2=Gramlich |first3=Thomas |last3=Kellerhals |first4=Leonhard |last4=Tobler |first5=Margit |last5=Schwikowski|pages = e1400196|bibcode=2015SciA....1E0196E }}</ref>
*Brazil: 1989<ref>{{cite web |url=https://atosoficiais.com.br/anp/resolucao-cnp-n-1-1989-o-substituto-eventual-do-diretor-geral-da-agencia-nacional-do-petroleo-gas-natural-e-biocombustiveis-anp-de-acordo-com-o-disposto-no-3-do-artigo-6-do-anexo-i-ao-decreto-n-2455-de-14-de-janeiro-de-1998-com-base-nas-disposicoes-da-lei-n-9-478-de-06-de-agosto-de-1997-e-na-resolucao-de-diretoria-n-63-de-22-de-fevereiro-de-2005-e |title=Brazilian ANP's Resolution No. 01/1989: Provides for standard gasoline specifications for consumption and emissions tests (including Lead) |location=Brazil |publisher=Agência Nacional do Petróleo, Gás Natural e Biocombustíveis (ANP) |date=January 31, 1989 |access-date=July 16, 2023 |quote= |archive-date=16 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716182455/https://atosoficiais.com.br/anp/resolucao-cnp-n-1-1989-o-substituto-eventual-do-diretor-geral-da-agencia-nacional-do-petroleo-gas-natural-e-biocombustiveis-anp-de-acordo-com-o-disposto-no-3-do-artigo-6-do-anexo-i-ao-decreto-n-2455-de-14-de-janeiro-de-1998-com-base-nas-disposicoes-da-lei-n-9-478-de-06-de-agosto-de-1997-e-na-resolucao-de-diretoria-n-63-de-22-de-fevereiro-de-2005-e |url-status=live }}</ref> or 1991<ref name="PMC4643815"/>
*Chile: 2001<ref>{{cite web|title=ENAP dejará de distribuir gasolina con plomo el sabado|language=es|trans-title=ENAP will stop distributing leaded gasoline on Saturday|url=http://www.emol.com/noticias/economia/2001/03/26/50211/enap-dejara-de-distribuir-gasolina-con-plomo-el-sabado.html|access-date=1 August 2014|date=2001-03-26|archive-date=8 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208175858/http://www.emol.com/noticias/economia/2001/03/26/50211/enap-dejara-de-distribuir-gasolina-con-plomo-el-sabado.html|url-status=live}}</ref> or 2005<ref name="PMC4643815"/>
*Colombia: 1991<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[El Tiempo (Colombia)|El Tiempo]]|url=http://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/MAM-615546|title=La gasolina no tiene plomo|language=es|trans-title=Gasoline is unleaded|first=Gabriel Reyes|last=Aldana|date=10 July 1997|access-date=24 May 2014|archive-date=3 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190203201905/https://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/MAM-615546|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Guyana: 2000
*Peru: 2004
*Suriname: 2001
*Uruguay: 2004<ref>{{cite web|url= http://universidad.edu.uy/prensa/renderItem/itemId/43692|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210521170857/http://universidad.edu.uy/prensa/renderItem/itemId/43692 |title=Udelar y contaminación con plomo: trabajo continuo |language=es |trans-title=University of the Republic and lead contamination: continuous work |date=16 August 2019 |archive-date=21 May 2021}}</ref>
*Venezuela: 2005
{{Col-break}}

===== Asia =====
*Afghanistan: 2016<ref name="bbc.co.uk">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-58388810|title=Highly polluting leaded petrol now eradicated from the world, says UN|website=BBC News|date=31 August 2021|access-date=1 September 2021|archive-date=1 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901102025/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-58388810|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Bangladesh: 1999
*China: 2000
*Hong Kong: 1999
*India: March 2000<ref name="blogs.wsj.com">{{cite web|last1=Venkatesh|first1=Thuppil|title=A Surprising Source of Lead Poisoning: India's Idols|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2015/06/04/an-unlikely-source-of-lead-poisoning-indias-idols/|website=The Wall Street Journal|access-date=18 April 2016|date=2015-06-04|archive-date=6 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180506041349/https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2015/06/04/an-unlikely-source-of-lead-poisoning-indias-idols/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Saudi Arabia: 2001
*Indonesia: 2006
*Iran: 2003
*Iraq: 2018<ref name="wedocs.unep.org">{{cite web |title=Leaded Petrol Phase-out: Global Status March 2018 |url=https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/25422/MapWorldLead_March2018.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |website=wedocs.unep.org |access-date=1 September 2021 |archive-date=15 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210915221636/https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/25422/MapWorldLead_March2018.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web |title=Leaded Petrol Phase-out: Global Status July 2018 |url=https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/25756/MapWorldLead_July2018.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date=1 September 2021 |archive-date=1 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901080729/https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/25756/MapWorldLead_July2018.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live }}</ref>
*Japan: 1986
*Malaysia: 2000
*Myanmar: 2016<ref name="bbc.co.uk"/>
*Nepal: 2000
*North Korea: 2016<ref name="bbc.co.uk"/>
*Pakistan: 2001<ref>{{cite journal|title=Status of children's blood lead levels in Pakistan: implications for research and policy| pmc=2494596 | pmid=18359052|doi=10.1016/j.puhe.2007.08.012|volume=122| issue=7 |year=2008|pages=708–15| last1=Kadir| first1=M. M.| last2=Janjua| first2=N. Z.| last3=Kristensen| first3=S.| last4=Fatmi| first4=Z.| last5=Sathiakumar| first5=N.| journal=Public Health}}</ref>
*Philippines: 2000
*Singapore: 1998
*South Korea: 1993
*Sri Lanka: 1999
*Taiwan: 2000<ref>職業安全衛生法-{{cite web|title=【四烷基鉛中毒預防規則】|url=https://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=N0060019|accessdate=15 July 2022|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416163534/https://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=N0060019|url-status=live}} <br />法規類別：	行政 ＞ 勞動部 ＞ 職業安全衛生目</ref>
*Thailand: 1996
*Turkey: 2006<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2004/06/20040611.htm#8 | title = Çevre ve Orman Bakanlığından: Benzin ve Motorin Kalitesi Yönetmeliği (2003/17/AT ile değişik 98/70/AT) | trans-title = From the Ministry of Environment and Forestry: Gasoline and Diesel Quality Regulation (98/70/EC as amended with 2003/17/EC) | publisher = [[Official Gazette of the Republic of Turkey|Resmi Gazete]] | date = 11 June 2004 | accessdate = 23 April 2022 | issue = 25489 | language = tr | archive-date = 1 January 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150101012357/https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2004/06/20040611.htm#8 | url-status = live }}</ref>
*United Arab Emirates: 2003<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gulfnews.com/uae/uae-switches-to-unleaded-fuel-1.343442|title=UAE switches to unleaded fuel|website=Gulf News|date=2003-01-01|access-date=2020-11-28|archive-date=12 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412131951/https://gulfnews.com/uae/uae-switches-to-unleaded-fuel-1.343442|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Vietnam: 2001 <ref>{{Cite web |date=August 2002 |publisher=Joint UNDP/World Bank Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme (ESMAP) |title=An Overnight Success: Vietnam's Switch to Unleaded Gasoline |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/pt/441911468762898801/pdf/multi0page.pdf |access-date=2024-06-14 |website=World Bank |archive-date=14 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240614194104/https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/pt/441911468762898801/pdf/multi0page.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*Yemen: 2018<ref name="wedocs.unep.org"/><ref name="ReferenceA"/>
{{Col-break}}

===== Oceania =====
*Australia: 2002<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/jul2004/2004-07-26-04.asp|title=Australia Cuts Sulfur Content in Transport Fuels|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|date=26 July 2004|publisher=[[Environment News Service]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050422174432/http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/jul2004/2004-07-26-04.asp|archive-date=22 April 2005}}</ref>
*New Zealand: 1996
*Guam: 1 January 1996 (USA)
*Samoa: 2001
{{col-end}}

===== Africa =====
*Egypt: 1999
*South Africa: 2006
*Leaded petrol was supposed to be completely phased out continent-wide on 1 January 2006, following a ban initiated from the 2002 Earth Summit.<ref>{{cite news |title = UN hails green triumph as leaded petrol is banned throughout Africa |last = Lean |first = Geoffrey |date = 1 January 2006 |work = [[The Independent]] |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/un-hails-green-triumph-as-leaded-petrol-is-banned-throughout-africa-521255.html |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101112114249/https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/un-hails-green-triumph-as-leaded-petrol-is-banned-throughout-africa-521255.html |archive-date = 12 November 2010}}</ref> However, in Algeria refineries needed to be altered; as a result, leaded fuel remained available in parts of [[Algeria]],<ref name=leadgroup /> with phaseout scheduled for 2016. After the Algerian Government outlawed the sale of leaded petrol throughout all of Algeria, leaded petrol was finally phased out by July 2021.<ref>{{cite news|title = Africa adopts continent-wide sustainable transport agenda |last = Chandola |first = Priyanka |date = 6 January 2015 |url = http://www.downtoearth.org.in/content/africa-adopts-continent-wide-sustainable-transport-agenda |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150919192952/http://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/africa-adopts-continent-wide-sustainable-transport-agenda-48089 |archive-date = 19 September 2015 |url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=28 September 2020|title=Marketing of Super-Leaded Petrol to stop as of 2021|url=https://www.aps.dz/en/economy/35909-marketing-of-super-leaded-petrol-to-stop-as-of-2021|access-date=24 August 2021|website=Algeria Press Service|archive-date=24 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824080451/https://www.aps.dz/en/economy/35909-marketing-of-super-leaded-petrol-to-stop-as-of-2021|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Smil |first1=Vaclav |title=Invention and innovation: a brief history of hype and failure |date=2023 |publisher=The MIT press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=9780262048057 |page=34 |quote=The two penultimate holdouts were Venezuela, which initiated a ban in 2005, and Indonesia, which did so in 2006, and it was not until July 2021 that Algeria stopped selling leaded gasoline.}}</ref>

==== In motor racing ====
Leaded fuel was commonly used in professional [[motor racing]], until its phase out beginning in the 1990s. Since 1992, [[Formula One]] racing cars have been required to use fuel containing no more than 5&nbsp;mg/L of lead.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fia.com/regulation/category/110|title=FIA Formula 1 Technical Regulations 2018|date=7 December 2017|access-date=26 October 2018|archive-date=22 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222080320/https://www.fia.com/regulation/category/110|url-status=live}}</ref>{{verify inline|reason=Publication date was cited using an ambiguous date format. Might actually be 12 July|date=August 2023}}

[[NASCAR]] began experimentation in 1998 with an unleaded fuel, and in 2006 began switching the national series to unleaded fuel, completing the transition at the [[2007 Auto Club 500|Fontana round in February 2007]] when the premier class switched. This was influenced after blood tests of NASCAR teams revealed elevated blood lead levels.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= O'Neil |first1= J. |last2= Steele |first2= G. |last3= McNair |first3=C. S. |last4= Matusiak |first4=M. M. |last5= Madlem |first5= J. |pmid= 16361219 |year= 2006 |pages= 67–71 |issue= 2 |volume= 3 |journal= Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene |title= Blood lead levels in NASCAR Nextel Cup Teams |doi= 10.1080/15459620500471221|s2cid= 33119520 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://nascar.about.com/od/cars/a/unleaded08.htm |title=NASCAR to Use Unleaded Fuel in 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528131514/http://nascar.about.com/od/cars/a/unleaded08.htm|archive-date=28 May 2008|access-date=5 January 2020}}</ref>

==== Aviation gasoline ====
{{Main|Avgas}}
TEL remains an ingredient of 100 [[octane rating|octane]] [[avgas]] for piston-engine aircraft. The current formulation of 100LL (low lead, blue) aviation gasoline contains {{convert|2.12|g/USgal|g/L}} of TEL, half the amount of the previous 100/130 (green) octane avgas (at 4.24 grams per gallon),<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.aopa.org/whatsnew/regulatory/reglead.html |title=Issues Related to Lead in Avgas |publisher= Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110918234831/http://www.aopa.org/whatsnew/regulatory/reglead.html |archive-date= 18 September 2011|date= 2016-03-08}}</ref> and twice as much as the 1 gram per gallon permitted in regular automotive leaded gasoline prior to 1988 and substantially greater than the allowed 0.001 grams per gallon in automotive unleaded gasoline sold in the United States today.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.autofuelstc.com/autofuelstc/pa/Information.html |title= Modifications / Octane / Lead Content / Fuel Specs / Limitations / Certification |publisher= Petersen Aviation Inc. |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120330200056/http://www.autofuelstc.com/autofuelstc/pa/Information.html |archive-date= 30 March 2012}}</ref> The United States Environmental Protection Agency, [[FAA]], and others are working on economically feasible replacements for leaded avgas, which still releases 100 tons of lead every year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.runwaygirlnetwork.com/2014/07/30/us-leads-avgas-effort-for-lead-free-air/ |title=US leads Avgas effort for lead-free air |last1=Bryan |first1=Chelsea |date=30 July 2014 |website=www.runwaygirlnetwork.com |publisher=Kirby Media Group |access-date=31 July 2014 |archive-date=8 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808052051/http://www.runwaygirlnetwork.com/2014/07/30/us-leads-avgas-effort-for-lead-free-air/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Alternative antiknock agents ====
Antiknock agents are classed as ''high-percentage'' additives, such as alcohol, and ''low-percentage'' additives based on [[Heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy elements]]. Since the main problem with TEL is its lead content, many alternative additives that contain less poisonous metals have been examined. A manganese-carrying additive, [[methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl]] (MMT or methylcymantrene), was used for a time as an antiknock agent, though its safety is controversial and it has been the subject of bans and lawsuits. [[Ferrocene]], an [[Organometallic chemistry|organometallic]] compound of [[iron]], is also used as an antiknock agent although with some significant drawbacks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.osd.org.tr/14.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060505193757/http://www.osd.org.tr/14.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Application of fuel additives|archive-date=5 May 2006}}</ref>

High-percentage additives are [[organic compound]]s that do not contain metals, but require much higher blending ratios, such as 20–30% for [[benzene]] and [[ethanol]]. It had been established by 1921 that ethanol was an effective antiknock agent, but TEL was introduced instead mainly for commercial reasons.<ref name="Kitman" /> [[Oxygenate]]s such as [[tert-Amyl methyl ether|TAME]] derived from natural gas, [[MTBE]] made from methanol, and ethanol-derived [[ETBE]], have largely supplanted TEL. MTBE has environmental risks of its own and there are also bans on its use.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

Improvements to gasoline itself decrease the need for antiknock additives. Synthetic [[iso-octane]] and [[alkylate]] are examples of such blending stocks. Benzene and other high-octane [[Aromatic hydrocarbon|aromatics]] can be also blended to raise the octane number, but they are disfavored today because of [[toxicity]] and [[carcinogen]]icity.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}