Editing Svalbard (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of Svalbard}}
{{See also|:Category:Dutch exploration in the Age of Discovery|l1=Dutch Republic in the Age of Discovery|Early modern Netherlandish cartography|Willem Barentsz|Northeast Passage|Arctic exploration|Terra nullius}}

===Dutch discovery===
{{See also|Dutch mapping of Svalbard}}
{{multiple image
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 | width = 220
 | image1 = Barentsz arctic map.jpg
 | caption1 = Svalbard, here mapped for the first time, is indicated as "Het Nieuwe Land" (Dutch for 'the New Land'), center-left. A portion of a 1599 map of Arctic exploration by [[Willem Barentsz]].
 | image2 = Arctic.svg
 | caption2 = In the [[:Category:Dutch exploration in the Age of Discovery|Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery]] ({{c.|1590s}}–1720s), Dutch navigators [[list of Dutch explorations|explored]] and [[early modern Netherlandish cartography|mapped many largely unknown isolated areas of the world]], including the Svalbard archipelago and [[Jan Mayen#History|Jan Mayen]] in the Arctic Ocean.
}}
The Dutchman [[Willem Barentsz]] made the first discovery of the archipelago in 1596, when he sighted the coast of the island of Spitsbergen while searching for the [[Northern Sea Route]].<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 30. Arlov (1996): 39–40</ref>

The first recorded landing on the islands of Svalbard dates to 1604, when an English ship landed at ''Bjørnøya'', or Bear Island, and started hunting [[walrus]]. Annual expeditions soon followed, and Spitsbergen became a base for hunting the [[bowhead whale]] from 1611.<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 32</ref><ref>Arlov (1996): 62</ref> Because of the lawless nature of the area, [[England|English]], [[Denmark|Danish]], [[Netherlands|Dutch]], and [[France|French]] companies and authorities tried to use force to keep out other countries' fleets.<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 34–36</ref><ref>Arlov (1996): 63–67</ref>

=== 17th–18th centuries ===
[[File:Traankokerijen bij het dorp Smerenburg Rijksmuseum SK-A-2355.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.25|The whaling station of the Amsterdam chamber of the Northern Company in [[Smeerenburg]], by [[Cornelis de Man]] (1639), but based on a painting of a ''Dansk hvalfangststation'' (Danish whaling station) by A.B.R. Speeck (1634), which represented the Danish station in Copenhagen Bay (Kobbefjorden)]]

[[Smeerenburg]] was one of the first settlements, established by the Dutch in 1619.<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 37</ref> Smaller bases were also built by the English, Danish, and French. At first the outposts were merely summer camps, but from the early 1630s, a few individuals started to [[overwintering|overwinter]]. Whaling at Spitsbergen lasted until the 1820s, when the Dutch, British, and Danish whalers moved elsewhere in the Arctic.<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 39</ref> By the late 17th century, [[Russians|Russian]] hunters arrived; they overwintered to a greater extent and hunted land mammals such as the polar bear and fox.<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 40</ref>

Norwegian hunting—mostly for walrus—started in the 1790s. The first Norwegian citizens to reach Spitsbergen proper were a number of Coast [[Sámi people]] from the [[Hammerfest]] region, who were hired as part of a Russian crew for an expedition in 1795.<ref>Carlheim-Gyllensköld (1900), p. 155</ref>

=== 19th century ===
After the [[Anglo-Russian War (1807–1812)|Anglo-Russian War]] in 1809, Russian activity on Svalbard diminished, and had ceased by the 1820s.<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 44</ref> Norwegian whaling was abandoned about the same time as the Russians left,<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 47</ref> but whaling continued around Spitsbergen until the 1830s, and around [[Bear Island (Norway)|Bjørnøya]] until the 1860s.<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 50</ref>

=== 20th century ===
==== Svalbard Treaty====
{{Main|Svalbard Treaty}}

By the 1890s, Svalbard had become a destination for [[Arctic tourism]], coal deposits had been found, and the islands were being used as a base for [[Arctic exploration]].<ref>Arlov (1996): 239</ref> The first mining was along Isfjorden by Norwegians in 1899; by 1904, British interests had established themselves in [[Adventfjorden]] and started the first year-round operations.<ref>Arlov (1996): 249</ref> Production in Longyearbyen, by US interests, started in 1908;<ref>Arlov (1996): 261</ref> and Store Norske established itself in 1916, as did other Norwegian interests during the [[First World War]], in part by buying US interests.<ref>Arlov (1996): 273</ref>

[[File:Proposed flag of Svalbard, Norway (1930).svg|thumb|A proposed flag of Svalbard from 1930.<ref name="Jan Oskar Engene">{{cite web |url=https://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/sj-arms.html |title=Svalbard flag proposal (Norway) |author=Jan Oskar Engene |date=7 February 1996 |work=Flags of the World |access-date=31 January 2023}}</ref> It consists of the lion from the [[Coat of arms of Norway|Norwegian coat of arms]] on a background of blue and white [[vair]], possibly symbolising the Arctic landscape of the archipelago. Svalbard does not currently use a distinct flag.]]

Discussions to establish the sovereignty of the archipelago commenced in the 1910s,<ref>Arlov (1996): 288</ref> but were interrupted by [[World War I]].<ref>Arlov (1996): 294</ref> On 9 February 1920, following the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]], the [[Svalbard Treaty]] was signed, granting full sovereignty to Norway. However, all signatory countries were granted non-discriminatory rights to fishing, hunting, and mineral resources.<ref>Arlov (1996): 305–306</ref> The treaty took effect on 14 August 1925, at the same time as the [[Svalbard Act]] regulated the archipelago and the first [[Governor of Svalbard|governor]], [[Johannes Gerckens Bassøe]], took office.<ref>Arlov (1996): 319</ref>

The archipelago has traditionally been known as Spitsbergen, and the main island as West Spitsbergen. During the 1920s, Norway renamed the archipelago Svalbard, and the main island became Spitsbergen.<ref>Umbreit (2005): XI–XII</ref> [[Kvitøya]], [[Kong Karls Land]], [[Hopen (Svalbard)|Hopen]], and [[Bear Island (Norway)|Bjørnøya]] were not regarded as part of the Spitsbergen archipelago.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://miljo.npolar.no/placenames/pages/detaile.asp?placeNameID=813614P |title=Place names of Svalbard |website=[[Norwegian Polar Institute]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606113449/http://miljo.npolar.no/placenames/pages/detaile.asp?placeNameID=813614P |archive-date=6 June 2011 }}</ref> Russians have traditionally called the archipelago ''Grumant'' ({{lang|ru|Грумант}}).<ref>Arlov (1996): 51</ref> The [[Soviet Union]] retained the name Spitsbergen ({{lang|ru|Шпицберген}}) to support undocumented claims that Russians were the first to discover the island.<ref>Fløgstad (2007): 18</ref><ref>Arlov (1996): 50</ref>

In 1928, Italian explorer [[Umberto Nobile]] and the crew of the airship ''Italia'' crashed on the icepack off the coast of [[Foynøya|Foyn Island]]. The subsequent rescue attempts were covered extensively in the press and Svalbard received short-lived fame as a result.<ref>Cross (2002): 84-85; 128-130</ref>

==== Second World War ====
[[File:Demolition of wireless station at Spitzbergen, Operation Gauntlet, 1941 (22418716705).jpg|thumb|Demolition of the wireless station during [[Operation Gauntlet]] in 1941]]

Svalbard, known to both British and Germans as Spitsbergen, was little affected by the [[German invasion of Norway]] in April 1940. The settlements continued to operate as before, mining coal and monitoring the weather.<ref>Dege (2004): 289-296</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World War II: The Weather War |url=https://svalbardmuseum.no/en/world-war-ii |access-date=26 March 2024 |website=Svalbard Museum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World War II - Svalbard Museum |url=https://svalbardmuseum.no/en/world-war-ii#:~:text=The%20settlements%20in%20Svalbard%20were%20not%20directly%20affected,1940,%20the%20fighting%20that%20ensued,%20or%20the%20capitulation. |access-date=10 May 2024 |website=svalbardmuseum.no}}</ref>

In July 1941, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union, the [[Royal Navy]] reconnoitered the islands with a view to using them as a base of operations to send supplies to north Russia, but the idea was rejected as impractical.<ref>Roskill Vol I: 388</ref> Instead, with the agreement of the Soviets and the Norwegian government in exile, in August 1941 the Norwegian and Soviet settlements on Svalbard were evacuated, and facilities there destroyed, in [[Operation Gauntlet]].<ref>Arlov (1996): 397</ref><ref>Roskill Vol I:  389</ref>
However, the Norwegian government in exile decided it would be important politically to establish a garrison in the islands, which was done in May 1942 during [[Operation Fritham]].<ref>Roskill Vol II: 132–133</ref>

Meanwhile, the Germans responded to the destruction of the weather station by establishing a reporting station of their own, codenamed [[Operation Bansö|"Banso"]], in October 1941.<ref>Arlov (1996): 400</ref> They were chased away in October by a visit from what the Germans mistook to be four British warships, but later returned.<ref>Dege (2004): XI</ref> A second station, "Knospe", was established at [[Ny-Ålesund]] in 1941, remaining until 1942. In May 1942, after the arrival of the Fritham force, the German unit at Banso was evacuated.<ref>Dege (2004): XI-XIII</ref>

In September 1943 in [[Operation Zitronella]] a German task force, which included the battleship [[German battleship Tirpitz|''Tirpitz'']], was sent to attack the garrison and destroy the settlements at Longyearbyen and Barentsburg.<ref>Arlov (1996): 402–403</ref> This was achieved, but had little long-term effect: after their departure the Norwegians returned and re-established their presence.<ref>Roskill Vol III:  62</ref>

In September 1944, the Germans set up their last weather station, [[Operation Haudegen]] in [[Nordaustlandet]]; it functioned until after the German surrender.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Selinger |first=Franz |date=1 April 1986 |title=Forsvarsmuseet's Svalbard expeditions 1984 and 1985 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00175022 |journal=GeoJournal |language=en |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=337–340 |doi=10.1007/BF00175022 |issn=1572-9893}}</ref> On 4 September 1945, the soldiers were picked up by a Norwegian seal hunting vessel and surrendered to its captain. This group of men were the last German troops to surrender after the Second World War.<ref>Dege (2004): 258</ref>

After the war, the Soviet Union proposed common Norwegian and Soviet administration and military defence of Svalbard. This was rejected in 1947 by Norway, which two years later joined [[NATO]]. The Soviet Union retained high civilian activity on Svalbard, in part to ensure that the archipelago was not used by NATO.<ref>Arlov (1996): 407–408</ref>

====Post-war====
[[File:Kulltaubane.jpg|thumb|Abandoned [[aerial tramway]] previously used for transporting coal]]

After the war, Norway re-established operations at Longyearbyen and Ny-Ålesund,<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 206</ref> while the Soviet Union established mining in [[Barentsburg]], [[Pyramiden]], and [[Grumant]].<ref name=t202>Torkildsen (1984): 202</ref> The mine at Ny-Ålesund had several fatal accidents, killing 71 people while it was in operation from 1945 to 1954 and from 1960 to 1963. The [[Kings Bay Affair]], caused by the 1962 accident killing 21 workers, forced [[Gerhardsen's Third Cabinet]] to resign.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.caplex.no/Web/ArticleView.aspx?id=9318238|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061103103405/http://www.caplex.no/Web/ArticleView.aspx?id=9318238|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 November 2006|title=Kings Bay|language=no|access-date=24 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.caplex.no/Web/ArticleView.aspx?id=9318239|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061109115607/http://www.caplex.no/Web/ArticleView.aspx?id=9318239|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 November 2006|title=Kings Bay-saken|language=no|access-date=24 March 2010}}</ref>

From 1964, Ny-Ålesund became a research outpost, and a facility for the [[European Space Research Organisation]].<ref>Arlov (1996): 412</ref> Petroleum test drilling was started in 1963 and continued until 1984, but no commercially viable fields were found.<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 261</ref> From 1960, regular charter flights were made from the mainland to a field at [[Hotellneset]];<ref>Tjomsland and Wilsberg (1995): 163</ref> in 1975, Svalbard Airport, Longyearbyen opened, allowing year-round services.<ref>Tjomsland and Wilsberg (1995): 162–164</ref>

During the [[Cold War]], the Soviet Union supplied about two-thirds of the population on the islands (Norwegians making up the remaining third) with the population of the archipelago slightly under 4,000.<ref name=t202 /> Russian activity has diminished considerably since then, falling from 2,500 to 450 people from 1990 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/00/00/20/nos_svalbard_en/nos_d330_en/tab/045.html |title=Persons in settlements 1 January. 1990–2005 |website=[[Statistics Norway]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114020929/http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/00/00/20/nos_svalbard_en/nos_d330_en/tab/045.html |archive-date=14 November 2011  }}</ref><ref name=demographics>{{cite web |url=http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/00/00/20/nos_svalbard_en/nos_d330_en/tab/049.html |title=Non-Norwegian population in Longyearbyen, by nationality. Per 1 January. 2004 and 2005. Number of persons |website=[[Statistics Norway]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523054216/http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/00/00/20/nos_svalbard_en/nos_d330_en/tab/049.html |archive-date=23 May 2010  }}</ref> Grumant was closed after it was depleted in 1962.<ref name=t202 />

Pyramiden was closed in 1998.<ref>Fløgstad (2007): 127</ref> Coal exports from Barentsburg ceased in 2006 because of a fire,<ref name=chp10 /> but resumed in 2010.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Staalesen |first=Atle |title=Russians restarted coal mining at Svalbard |work=Barents Observer |date=8 November 2010 |url=http://www.barentsobserver.com/russians-restarted-coal-mining-at-svalbard.4840198-116321.html |access-date=26 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101120015113/http://barentsobserver.com/russians-restarted-coal-mining-at-svalbard.4840198-116321.html |archive-date=20 November 2010 }}</ref> The Russians experienced two air accidents: [[Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801]] (1996), which killed 141 people,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19960829-0 |title=29 Aug 1996 |website=[[Aviation Safety Network]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100417153006/http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19960829-0 |archive-date=17 April 2010  }}</ref> and the [[Heerodden helicopter accident]] (2008), which killed three people.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.vg.no/nyheter/innenriks/artikkel.php?artid=513681 |title=- Kraftig vindkast trolig årsaken |author1=Eisenträger, Stian |author2=Per Øyvind Fange |name-list-style=amp |work=[[Verdens Gang]] |date=30 March 2008 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610164323/http://www.vg.no/nyheter/innenriks/artikkel.php?artid=513681 |archive-date=10 June 2011  }}</ref>

Longyearbyen remained purely a company town until 1989 when utilities, culture, and education was separated into Svalbard Samfunnsdrift.<ref name=ah49>Arlov and Holm (2001): 49</ref> In 1993, it was sold to the national government and the University Centre was established.<ref name=unis>{{cite web |url=http://www.unis.no/30_ABOUT_UNIS/4010_Root/intro.htm |title=Arctic science for global challenges |website=[[University Centre in Svalbard]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206141732/http://www.unis.no/30_ABOUT_UNIS/4010_Root/intro.htm |archive-date=6 February 2012  }}</ref> Through the 1990s, tourism increased and the town developed an economy independent of Store Norske and mining.<ref name=naering /> Longyearbyen was incorporated on 1 January 2002, adopting a community council.<ref name=ah49 />