Editing Stigand (section)

==Archbishop of Canterbury==

===Appointment to Canterbury and issues with the papacy===
The Archbishopric of Canterbury became drawn into the conflict between Edward and Godwin.<ref name=Smith202>Smith "Archbishop Stigand" ''Anglo-Norman Studies 16'' pp. 201–203</ref> Pope [[Pope Leo IX|Leo IX]] was beginning a reform movement later known as the [[Gregorian Reform]]. Leo first focused on improving the clergy and prohibiting [[simony]]&nbsp;– the buying and selling of clerical and ecclesiastical offices. In 1049 Leo IX publicly pronounced that he would take more interest in English church matters and would investigate episcopal candidates more strictly before confirming them.<ref name=Stafford89/> When Archbishop [[Edsige]] of Canterbury died in 1051 the monks of the cathedral chapter elected Æthelric, a relative of Earl Godwin's, as archbishop.<ref name=Huscroft6>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' p. 6</ref> King Edward opposed the election and instead appointed [[Robert of Jumièges]], who was Norman and already [[Bishop of London]].  Besides furthering Edward's quarrel with Godwin, the appointment signalled that there were limits to Edward's willingness to compromise on ecclesiastical reform.<ref name=Stafford89/>

Although not known as a reformer before his appointment, Robert returned in 1051 from Rome, where he had gone to be confirmed by the papacy, and opposed the king's choice for Bishop of London on the grounds that the candidate was not suitable. Robert's attempts to recover church property that had been appropriated by Earl Godwin contributed to the quarrel between the earl and the king. When Godwin returned to England in 1052 Robert was outlawed and exiled,<ref name=Stafford89>Stafford ''Unification and Conquest'' pp. 89–92</ref> following which King Edward appointed Stigand to the archbishopric.<ref name=Handbook214>Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' p. 214</ref> The appointment was either a reward from Godwin for Stigand's support during the conflict with Edward or a reward from King Edward for successfully negotiating a peaceful conclusion to the crisis in 1052.<ref name=Walker49/> Stigand was the first non-monk to be appointed to either English archbishopric since before the days of [[Dunstan]] (archbishop from 959 to 988).<ref name=Handbook214/><ref name=Monastic66>Knowles ''Monastic Order'' p. 66</ref><ref name=Brooks306>Brooks ''Early History'' p. 306</ref>

The papacy refused to recognise Stigand's elevation, as Robert was still alive and had not been deprived of office by a pope.<ref name=Smith202/> Robert of Jumièges appealed to Leo IX, who summoned Stigand to Rome. When Stigand did not appear, he was excommunicated.<ref name=ASE465>Stenton ''Anglo-Saxon England'' pp. 465–466</ref> Historian [[Nicholas Brooks (historian)|Nicholas Brooks]] holds the view that Stigand was not excommunicated at this time, but rather was ordered to refrain from any archiepiscopal functions, such as the consecration of bishops. He argues that in 1062 papal legates sat in council with Stigand, something they would not have done had he been excommunicated.<ref name=Brooks307>Brooks ''Early History'' p. 307</ref> The legates did nothing to alter Stigand's position either,<ref name=Rex184>Rex ''Harold II'' p. 184</ref> although one of the legates later helped depose Stigand in 1070.<ref name=1000Church306>Barlow ''English Church 1000–1066'' p. 306</ref> However Pope Leo IX and his successors, [[Pope Victor II|Victor II]] and [[Pope Stephen IX|Stephen IX]], continued to regard Stigand as uncanonically elected.<ref name=ASE465/><ref name=Intro108>Blair ''Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 108</ref>

Stigand did not travel to Rome to receive a [[pallium]],<ref name=DNB/> the band worn around the neck that is the symbol of an archbishop's authority,<ref name=Coredon>Coredon ''Dictionary'' p. 209</ref> from the pope. Travelling to Rome for the pallium had become a custom, practised by a number of his predecessors.<ref name=Brooks291>Brooks ''Early History'' pp. 291, 299, 304</ref> Instead, some medieval chroniclers state that he used Robert of Jumièges' pallium.<ref name=DNB/> It is not known if Stigand even petitioned the papacy for a pallium soon after his appointment.<ref name=Reform420>Darlington "Ecclesiastical Reform" ''English Historical Review'' p. 420</ref> Owing to the reform movement, Stigand probably knew the request would be unsuccessful.<ref name=Smith202/> In 1058 Antipope [[Antipope Benedict X|Benedict X]], who opposed much of the reform movement, gave Stigand a pallium.<ref name=Brooks306/><ref name=BHOArchCant>Greenway ''Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae 1066–1300: Volume 2: Monastic Cathedrals (Northern and Southern Provinces): Canterbury: Archbishops''</ref> However, Benedict was deposed the following year;<ref name=Brooks306/><ref name=Huscroft62/> the reforming party declared Benedict an [[antipope]], and nullified all his acts,<ref name=Brooks306/> including Stigand's pallium grant.<ref name=Huscroft48>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' p. 48</ref> The exact circumstances that led to Benedict granting a pallium are unknown, whether it was at Stigand's request or was given without prompting.<ref name=Reform420/>

After his translation to Canterbury, Stigand released Elmham to his brother Æthelmær but retained the bishopric of Winchester.<ref name=Handbook223/> Canterbury and Winchester were the two richest sees in England,<ref name=Higham137>Higham ''Death of Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 137</ref><ref name=1000Church79>Barlow ''English Church 1000–1066'' p. 79</ref> and while precedent allowed the holding of a rich see along with a poor one, there was no precedent for holding two rich sees concurrently.<ref name=Brooks305>Brooks ''Early History'' p. 205</ref> He may have retained Winchester out of avarice, or his hold on Canterbury may not have been secure.<ref name=Stafford94>Stafford ''Unification and Conquest'' p. 94</ref> Besides these, he held the [[Gloucester Cathedral|abbey of Gloucester]] and the [[Ely Cathedral|abbey of Ely]] and perhaps other abbeys also.<ref name=Knowles72>Knowles ''Monastic Order'' p. 72</ref> Whatever his reasons, the retention of Winchester made Stigand a pluralist: the holder of more than one [[benefice]] at the same time.<ref name=Stafford94/> This was a practice that was targeted for elimination by the growing reform movement in the church.<ref name=Huscroft62/> Five successive popes (Leo IX, Victor II, Stephen IX, Nicholas II, and Alexander II)<ref name=BHOArchCant/> excommunicated Stigand for holding both Winchester and Canterbury at the same time.<ref name=Knowles72/> It has been suggested by the historian Emma Mason that Edward refused to remove Stigand because this would have undermined the royal prerogative to appoint bishops and archbishops without papal input.<ref name=Mason78/> Further hurting Stigand's position, Pope Nicholas II in 1061 declared pluralism to be uncanonical unless approved by the pope.<ref name=Huscroft62>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' p. 62</ref>

Stigand was later accused of simony by monastic chroniclers, but all such accusations date to after 1066, and are thus suspect owing to the post-Conquest desire to vilify the English Church as corrupt and backward.<ref name=Huscroft46>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' pp. 46–47</ref> The medieval chronicler [[William of Poitiers]] also claimed that in 1052 Stigand agreed that William of Normandy, the future William the Conqueror, should succeed King Edward. This claim was used as propaganda after the Conquest, but according to the historian [[David Bates (historian)|David Bates]], among others, it is unlikely to be true.<ref name=BatesWC77>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 77–78</ref><ref name=Rex141>Rex ''Harold II'' p. 141</ref> The position of Stigand as head of the church in England was used to good effect by the Normans in their propaganda before, during and after the Conquest.<ref name=Douglas170>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 170</ref>

===Ecclesiastical affairs===
The [[Archbishop of York|diocese of York]] took advantage of Stigand's difficulties with the papacy and encroached on the suffragans, or bishops owing obedience to an archbishop, normally subject to Canterbury. York had long been held in common with [[Bishop of Worcester|Worcester]], but during the period when Stigand was excommunicated, the see of York also claimed oversight over the sees of [[Bishop of Lichfield|Lichfield]] and [[Bishop of Lincoln|Dorchester]].<ref name=Barlow27>Barlow ''Feudal Kingdom'' p. 27</ref> In 1062 [[papal legate]]s of Alexander II came to England. They did not depose Stigand, and even consulted with him and treated him as archbishop.<ref name=Walker127>Walker ''Harold'' p. 127</ref> He was allowed to attend the council they held and was an active participant with the legates in the business of the council.<ref name=Walker148>Walker ''Harold''  pp. 148–149</ref>

Many of the bishops in England did not want to be consecrated by Stigand.<ref name=Chibnall39>Chibnall ''Anglo-Norman England'' p. 39</ref> Both [[Gisa, Bishop of Wells|Giso of Wells]] and [[Walter of Lorraine|Walter of Hereford]] travelled to Rome to be consecrated by the pope in 1061, rather than be consecrated by Stigand.<ref name=Huscroft51>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' p. 51</ref> During the brief period that he held a legitimate pallium, however, Stigand did consecrate [[Æthelric II|Aethelric of Selsey]] and [[Siward, Bishop of Rochester|Siward of Rochester]].<ref name=Walker136>Walker ''Harold''  pp. 136–138</ref> Abbots of monasteries came to Stigand for consecration throughout his time as archbishop. These included not only abbots from monastic houses inside his province, such as [[Æthelsige]] as abbot of [[St Augustine's Abbey]] in Canterbury, but also [[Baldwin (abbot of Bury St Edmunds)|Baldwin]] as [[Abbot of Bury St. Edmunds]] and Thurstan as [[List of bishops of Ely|Abbot of Ely]].<ref name=Brooks307/> After the Norman Conquest, Stigand was accused of selling the office of abbot, but no abbot was deposed for buying the office, so the charge is suspect.<ref name=1000Church113>Barlow ''English Church 1000–1066'' pp. 113–115</ref>

Stigand was probably the most lavish clerical donor of his period when great men gave to churches on an unprecedented scale.<ref name=ASA230>Dodwell ''Anglo-Saxon Art'' pp. 230–231</ref> He was a benefactor to the Abbey of Ely,<ref name=Conquest46/> and gave large gold or silver crucifixes to Ely, St Augustine's Abbey in Canterbury, [[Bury St. Edmunds Abbey]], and to his [[Cathedral|cathedral church]] at Winchester.<ref name=Piety576>Smith, et al. "Court and Piety" ''Catholic Historical Review'' p. 576</ref> The crucifixes given to Ely, Bury and Winchester all appear to have had about life-size figures of Christ with matching figures of the Virgin and [[John the Evangelist]], as is recorded in the monastic histories, and were probably permanently mounted over the altar or elsewhere. These would have been made with thin sheets of precious metal over a wooden core.<ref name=ASA220>Dodwell ''Anglo-Saxon Art'' pp. 211–213, 220 n. 39</ref> No comparably early [[rood]] crosses with the side figures of Mary and John seem to survive, though we have large painted wooden crucifixes like the German [[Gero Cross]] of around 980, and the [[Volto Santo of Lucca]] (renewed with a later figure) which is known to have inspired Leofstan, Abbot of Bury (d. 1065) to create a similar figure, perhaps covered in precious metal, on his return from a visit to Rome.<ref name=ASA211>Dodwell ''Anglo-Saxon Art'' p. 211</ref>{{efn|No early large metal examples have survived, though for example [[Charlemagne]] is known to have had one in his chapel at Aachen. For further information on the evolution of the large crucifix, see Schiller, ''Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I'', pp. 140–149, {{ISBN|0-85331-270-2}}.}} To Ely he gave gold and silver vessels for the altar, and a [[chasuble]] embroidered in gold "of such inestimable workmanship and worth, that none in the kingdom is considered richer or more valuable".<ref name=ASA181>Dodwell ''Anglo-Saxon Art'' pp. 181 and 205</ref> Although it does not appear that Stigand ever travelled to Rome, there are indications that Stigand did go on pilgrimage. A 12th-century life of Saint [[Willibrord]], written at the [[Abbey of Echternach]] in what is now [[Luxembourg]], records that "to this place also came Stigand, the eminent archbishop of the English". In the work, Stigand is recorded as giving rich gifts to the abbey as well as relics of saints.<ref name=Piety575>Smith, et al. "Court and Piety" ''Catholic Historical Review'' p. 575</ref>

===Advisor to the king===
During Edward's reign, Stigand was an influential advisor at court and used his position to increase his own wealth as well as that of his friends and family. Contemporary valuations of the lands he controlled at the death of King Edward, as listed in [[Domesday Book]], come to an annual income of about 2500 pounds.<ref name=DNB/> There is little evidence, however, that he enriched either Canterbury or Winchester.<ref name=DNB/><ref name=Brooks307a>Brooks ''Early History'' pp. 307–309</ref> He also appointed his followers to sees within his diocese in 1058, having Siward named [[Bishop of Rochester]] and Æthelric installed as [[Bishop of Chichester|Bishop of Selsey]].<ref name=Loyn58/> Between his holding of two sees and the appointment of his men to other sees in the southeast of England, Stigand was an important figure in defending the coastline against invasion.<ref name=Loyn64>Loyn ''English Church'' p. 64</ref>

Stigand may have been in charge of the royal administration.<ref name=Mason78>Mason ''House of Godwine'' pp. 78–79</ref> He may also have been behind the effort to locate [[Edward the Exile|Edward the Atheling]] and his brother [[Edmund Ætheling|Edmund]] after 1052, possibly to secure a more acceptable heir to King Edward.<ref name="Harold75">Walker ''Harold'' p. 75</ref> His landholdings were spread across ten counties, and in some of those counties, his lands were larger than the king's holdings.<ref name=Smith204>Smith "Archbishop Stigand" ''Anglo-Norman Studies 16'' p. 204</ref> Although Norman propagandists claimed that as early as 1051 or 1052 King Edward promised the throne of England to Duke [[William I of England|William of Normandy]], who later became King William the Conqueror, there is little contemporary evidence of such a promise from non-Norman sources.<ref name=Stafford92>Stafford ''Unification and Conquest'' p. 92</ref> By 1053, Edward probably realised that he would not have a son from his marriage, and he and his advisors began to search for an heir.<ref name=Confessor214>Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' pp. 214–215</ref> Edward the Atheling, the son of King [[Edmund Ironside]] (reigned 1016), had been exiled from England in 1017, after his father's death.<ref name="Harold75" />{{efn|Edmund Ironside was the elder half-brother of Edward the Confessor; both were sons of Æthelred, with Edmund being the son of [[Ælfgifu of York]], and Edward being the son of [[Emma of Normandy]]. Edmund Ironside had two sons, [[Edward the Exile]] and Edmund, who probably died while young in exile. Edward the Exile married while in exile and was the father of [[Edgar the Ætheling]] and [[Saint Margaret of Scotland|Margaret of Scotland]], the wife of King [[Malcolm III of Scotland]].<ref name=Handbook27>Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' pp. 27–29 and p. 57</ref>}} Although Ealdred, the Bishop of Worcester, went to the Continent in search of Edward the Exile, Ian Walker, the biographer of King Harold Godwinson, feels that Stigand was behind the effort.<ref name="Harold75"/> In the end, although Edward did return to England, he died soon after his return, leaving a young son [[Edgar the Ætheling]].<ref name=Thomas18>Thomas ''Norman Conquest'' p. 18</ref>