Editing Smoke (section)

==Dangers==
Smoke from oxygen-deprived fires contains a significant concentration of compounds that are flammable. A cloud of smoke, in contact with atmospheric oxygen, therefore has the potential of being ignited – either by another open flame in the area, or by its own temperature. This leads to effects like [[backdraft]] and [[flashover]]. [[Smoke inhalation]] is also a danger of smoke that can cause serious injury and death.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Bad Is Wildfire Smoke for Your Health? |url=https://www.yalemedicine.org/news/how-bad-is-wildfire-smoke-for-your-health |access-date=2024-05-25 |website=Yale Medicine |language=en}}</ref>
[[Image:Fish processing hub.jpg|thumb|left|Processing fish while being exposed to smoke]]
Many compounds of smoke from fires are highly toxic and/or irritating. The most dangerous is [[carbon monoxide]] leading to [[carbon monoxide poisoning]], sometimes with the additive effects of [[hydrogen cyanide]] and [[phosgene]]. Smoke inhalation can therefore quickly lead to incapacitation and loss of consciousness. Sulfur oxides, hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride in contact with moisture form [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]], [[hydrochloric acid|hydrochloric]] and [[hydrofluoric acid]], which are corrosive to both lungs and materials. 

[[File:WTC smoking on 9-11.jpeg|thumb|World Trade Center on fire after terrorists flew planes into the buildings on September 11, 2001]]
[[Cigarette smoke]] is a major modifiable risk factor for [[lung disease]], [[heart disease]], and many [[cancer]]s.  Smoke can also be a component of ambient air pollution due to the burning of coal in power plants, forest fires or other sources, although the concentration of pollutants in ambient air is typically much less than that in cigarette smoke.  One day of exposure to PM2.5 at a concentration of 880 μg/m<sup>3</sup>, such as occurs in Beijing, China, is the equivalent of smoking one or two cigarettes in terms of particulate inhalation by weight.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pope |first1=C. Arden |last2=Burnett |first2=Richard T. |last3=Turner |first3=Michelle C. |last4=Cohen |first4=Aaron |last5=Krewski |first5=Daniel |last6=Jerrett |first6=Michael |last7=Gapstur |first7=Susan M. |last8=Thun |first8=Michael J. |title=Lung Cancer and Cardiovascular Disease Mortality Associated with Ambient Air Pollution and Cigarette Smoke: Shape of the Exposure–Response Relationships |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |date=November 2011 |volume=119 |issue=11 |pages=1616–1621 |doi=10.1289/ehp.1103639 |pmid=21768054 |pmc=3226505 |bibcode=2011EnvHP.119.1616P }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=St Cyr, MD |first1=Richard |title=Is PM2.5 From Air Pollution The Same As From Smoking? |url=http://www.myhealthbeijing.com/pollution/is-pm2-5-from-air-pollution-the-same-as-from-smoking/ |website=My Health Beijing |date=16 January 2013 |access-date=16 September 2015 |archive-date=16 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210216144621/http://www.myhealthbeijing.com/pollution/is-pm2-5-from-air-pollution-the-same-as-from-smoking/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The analysis is complicated, however, by the fact that the organic compounds present in various ambient particulates may have a higher carcinogenicity than the compounds in cigarette smoke particulates.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cupitt |first1=L T |last2=Glen |first2=W G |last3=Lewtas |first3=J |title=Exposure and risk from ambient particle-bound pollution in an airshed dominated by residential wood combustion and mobile sources. |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |date=October 1994 |volume=102 |issue=suppl 4 |pages=75–84 |doi=10.1289/ehp.94102s475 |pmid=7529707 |pmc=1566933 |bibcode=1994EnvHP.102S..75C }}</ref> Secondhand tobacco smoke is the combination of both sidestream and mainstream smoke emissions from a burning tobacco product. These emissions contain more than 50 carcinogenic chemicals. According to the United States [[Surgeon General of the United States|Surgeon General]]'s 2006 report on the subject, exposures to secondhand tobacco smoke can activate platelets causing increased clotting and increased risk of thrombus and potentially damage the lining of blood vessels, decrease coronary flow velocity reserves, and reduce heart rate variability, potentially increasing the risk of a heart attack. The chances of these effects occurring increase with increased exposure and time of exposure.<ref>{{cite web |last=General |first=Surgeon |title=The Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure to Tobacco Smoke: A Report of the Surgeon General |publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health |url=https://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/reports/secondhandsmoke/fullreport.pdf |access-date=27 February 2017 |archive-date=1 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170201132734/https://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/reports/secondhandsmoke/fullreport.pdf  }}</ref> The American Cancer Society lists "heart disease, lung infections, increased asthma attacks, middle ear infections, and low birth weight" as ramifications of smoker's emission.<ref>{{cite web|title=Secondhand Smoke|url=http://www.cancer.org/Cancer/CancerCauses/TobaccoCancer/secondhand-smoke|publisher=American Cancer Society|access-date=11 January 2011|archive-date=7 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107025355/http://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancercauses/tobaccocancer/secondhand-smoke|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Smoke from forest fires Sheremetyevo 20100807 01.JPG|thumb|Reduced visibility due to wildfire smoke in [[Sheremetyevo International Airport|Sheremetyevo Airport, Moscow]], 7 August 2010]]
[[File:Red smoke from Army display parachutist landing 29Sept2018 arp.jpg|thumb|Red smoke carried by a [[parachute|parachutist]] of the UK [[Lightning Bolts Army Parachute Display Team]] ]] 
Smoke can obscure visibility, impeding occupant exiting from fire areas. In fact, the poor visibility due to the smoke that was in the [[Worcester Cold Storage Warehouse fire]] in [[Worcester, Massachusetts]] was the reason why the trapped rescue firefighters could not evacuate the building in time. Because of the striking similarity that each floor shared, the dense smoke caused the firefighters to become disoriented.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegram.com/static/fire/|title=telegram.com – Warehouse Tragedy|access-date=28 July 2007|archive-date=29 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130829100805/http://www.telegram.com/static/fire/}}</ref>

===Corrosion===
Smoke can contain a wide variety of chemicals, many of them aggressive in nature. Examples are [[hydrochloric acid]] and [[hydrobromic acid]], produced from [[halogen]]-containing [[plastic]]s and [[fire retardant]]s, [[hydrofluoric acid]] released by [[pyrolysis]] of [[fluorocarbon]] [[fire suppression agent]]s, [[sulfuric acid]] from burning of [[sulfur]]-containing materials, [[nitric acid]] from high-temperature fires where [[nitrous oxide]] gets formed, [[phosphoric acid]] and [[antimony]] compounds from P and Sb based fire retardants, and many others. Such [[corrosion]] is not significant for structural materials, but delicate structures, especially [[microelectronics]], are strongly affected. Corrosion of [[circuit board]] traces, penetration of aggressive chemicals through the casings of parts, and other effects can cause an immediate or gradual deterioration of parameters or even premature (and often delayed, as the corrosion can progress over long time) failure of equipment subjected to smoke. Many smoke components are also [[electrically conductive]]; deposition of a conductive layer on the circuits can cause [[crosstalk]]s and other deteriorations of the operating parameters or even cause short circuits and total failures. [[Electrical contact]]s can be affected by corrosion of surfaces, and by deposition of [[soot]] and other conductive particles or nonconductive layers on or across the contacts. Deposited particles may adversely affect the performance of [[optoelectronics]] by absorbing or scattering the light beams.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}

Corrosivity of smoke produced by materials is characterized by the corrosion index (CI), defined as material loss rate (angstrom/minute) per amount of material gasified products (grams) per volume of air (m<sup>3</sup>). It is measured by exposing strips of metal to flow of combustion products in a test tunnel. Polymers containing halogen and [[hydrogen]] ([[polyvinyl chloride]], [[polyolefin]]s with halogenated additives, etc.) have the highest CI as the corrosive acids are formed directly with water produced by the combustion, polymers containing halogen only (e.g. [[polytetrafluoroethylene]]) have lower CI as the formation of acid is limited to reactions with airborne humidity, and halogen-free materials (polyolefins, [[wood]]) have the lowest CI.<ref name="physproppoly">{{cite book |last=Mark |first=James E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fZl7q7UgEXkC&pg=PA909 |title=Physical properties of polymers handbook |publisher=Springer |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-387-31235-4 |access-date=25 September 2016 |archive-date=2 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802054508/https://books.google.com/books?id=fZl7q7UgEXkC&pg=PA909 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, some halogen-free materials can also release significant amount of corrosive products.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sj4vSgMdimAC&pg=PA43 |page=43 |title=Optoelectronics for data communication |author=Ronald C. Lasky |author2=Ronald Lasky |author3=Ulf L. Österberg |author4=Daniel P. Stigliani |publisher=Academic Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-12-437160-6 |access-date=25 September 2016 |archive-date=16 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716062706/https://books.google.com/books?id=Sj4vSgMdimAC&pg=PA43 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Smoke damage to electronic equipment can be significantly more extensive than the fire itself. [[Electrical cable|Cable]] fires are of special concern; [[low smoke zero halogen]] materials are preferable for cable insulation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Szultka |first1=Seweryn |last2=Czapp |first2=Stanislaw |last3=Tomaszewski |first3=Adam |last4=Ullah |first4=Hayat |date=February 2023 |title=Evaluation of Fire Hazard in Electrical Installations Due to Unfavorable Ambient Thermal Conditions |journal=Fire |language=en |volume=6 |issue=2 |page=41 |doi=10.3390/fire6020041 |issn=2571-6255 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

When smoke comes into contact with the surface of any substance or structure, the chemicals contained in it are transferred to it. The corrosive properties of the chemicals cause the substance or structure to decompose at a rapid rate. Certain materials or structures absorb these chemicals, which is why clothing, unsealed surfaces, potable water, piping, wood, etc., are replaced in most cases of structural fires.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

===Health effects of wood smoke===
{{See also|Wildfire#Health effects}}
[[File:Wood Volatility Basis Dataset.jpg|thumb|Volatility distribution of volatile organic compound emissions in [[wood]] smoke<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=Gareth J. |last2=Nelson |first2=Beth S. |last3=Acton |first3=W. Joe F. |last4=Vaughan |first4=Adam R. |last5=Hopkins |first5=James R. |last6=Yunus |first6=Siti S. M. |last7=Hewitt |first7=C. Nicholas |last8=Nemitz |first8=Eiko |last9=Mandal |first9=Tuhin K. |last10=Gadi |first10=Ranu |last11=Sahu |first11=Lokesh. K. |last12=Rickard |first12=Andrew R. |last13=Lee |first13=James D. |last14=Hamilton |first14=Jacqueline F. |title=Comprehensive organic emission profiles, secondary organic aerosol production potential, and OH reactivity of domestic fuel combustion in Delhi, India |journal=Environmental Science: Atmospheres |date=2021 |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=104–117 |doi=10.1039/D0EA00009D |doi-access=free }}</ref>]] 
Wood smoke is a major source of [[air pollution]],<ref name=NSWEPA>{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/your-environment/air/reducing-wood-smoke-emissions|title=reducing-wood-smoke-emissions|first=NSW|last=EPA|website=NSW Environment Protection Authority|access-date=2 May 2021|archive-date=19 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419152235/https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/your-environment/air/reducing-wood-smoke-emissions|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=AUENV>{{Cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/|title=Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment|website=Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment|access-date=11 November 2008|archive-date=11 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190511213226/http://environment.gov.au/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=EU>{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/research/newsalert/pdf/92na1_en.pdf|title=Wood smoke major source of pollution in winter|date=2007|website=ec.europa.eu|access-date=2021-05-02|archive-date=8 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208212134/https://ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/research/newsalert/pdf/92na1_en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=WAHEALTH>{{cite web|url=https://healthywa.wa.gov.au/Articles/A_E/Air-pollution-and-health|title=Air pollution and health|website=healthywa.wa.gov.au|format=PDF|access-date=2021-05-02|archive-date=21 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421193721/https://healthywa.wa.gov.au/Articles/A_E/Air-pollution-and-health|url-status=live}}</ref> especially [[particulate pollution]],<ref name=AUENV/> pollution by [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons]] (PAHs)<ref name="10.5194/acp-21-17865-2021">{{cite journal |last1=Tsiodra |first1=Irini |last2=Grivas |first2=Georgios |last3=Tavernaraki |first3=Kalliopi |last4=Bougiatioti |first4=Aikaterini |last5=Apostolaki |first5=Maria |last6=Paraskevopoulou |first6=Despina |last7=Gogou |first7=Alexandra |last8=Parinos |first8=Constantine |last9=Oikonomou |first9=Konstantina |last10=Tsagkaraki |first10=Maria |last11=Zarmpas |first11=Pavlos |last12=Nenes |first12=Athanasios |last13=Mihalopoulos |first13=Nikolaos |title=Annual exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban environments linked to wintertime wood-burning episodes |journal=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics |date=7 December 2021 |volume=21 |issue=23 |pages=17865–17883 |doi=10.5194/acp-21-17865-2021 |bibcode=2021ACP....2117865T |s2cid=245103794 |language=English |issn=1680-7316|doi-access=free }}</ref> and [[volatile organic compounds]] (VOCs)<ref name=AUENV/>{{Better source needed|date=January 2022}} such as [[formaldehyde]].<ref name=USEPA>{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/burnwise/wood-smoke-and-your-health|title=Wood Smoke and Your Health|first=OAR|last=US EPA|date=May 28, 2013|website=US EPA|access-date=2 May 2021|archive-date=14 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514175128/https://www.epa.gov/burnwise/wood-smoke-and-your-health|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the [[United Kingdom]] domestic combustion, especially for industrial uses, is the largest single source of [[PM2.5]] annually.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hawkes |first1=N. |title=Air pollution in UK: the public health problem that won't go away |journal=BMJ |date=22 May 2015 |volume=350 |issue=may22 1 |pages=h2757 |doi=10.1136/bmj.h2757 |pmid=26001592 |s2cid=40717317 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Carrington|first=Damian|date=2021-02-16|title=Wood burning at home now biggest cause of UK particle pollution|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/16/home-wood-burning-biggest-cause-particle-pollution-fires|access-date=2022-02-13|website=The Guardian|language=en|archive-date=27 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227162919/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/16/home-wood-burning-biggest-cause-particle-pollution-fires|url-status=live}}</ref> In some towns and cities in [[New South Wales]], wood smoke may be responsible for 60% of fine particle air pollution in the winter.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/environment/factsheets/Pages/wood-smoke.aspx|title=Wood burning heaters and your health - Fact sheets|website=www.health.nsw.gov.au|access-date=2 May 2021|archive-date=9 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109204058/https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/environment/factsheets/Pages/wood-smoke.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> A year-long sampling campaign in Athens, Greece found a third (31%) of PAH urban air pollution to be caused by wood-burning, roughly as much as that of [[Diesel locomotive|diesel]] and [[Crude oil|oil]] (33%) and [[gasoline]] (29%). It also found that wood-burning is responsible for nearly half (43%) of annual PAH lung cancer-risk compared to the other sources and that wintertime PAH levels were 7 times higher than in other seasons, presumably due to an increased use of [[fireplace]]s and heaters. The largest exposure events are periods during the winter with reduced atmospheric dispersion to dilute the accumulated pollution, in particular due to the low [[wind]] speeds.<!--<ref>{{cite news |title=Wood burners cause nearly half of urban air pollution cancer risk – study |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/dec/17/wood-burners-urban-air-pollution-cancer-risk-study |access-date=16 January 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=17 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref>--><ref name="10.5194/acp-21-17865-2021"/> Research conducted about biomass burning in 2015, estimated that 38% of European total particulate pollution emissions are composed of domestic wood burning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sigsgaard |first1=Torben |last2=Forsberg |first2=Bertil |last3=Annesi-Maesano |first3=Isabella |last4=Blomberg |first4=Anders |last5=Bølling |first5=Anette |last6=Boman |first6=Christoffer |last7=Bønløkke |first7=Jakob |last8=Brauer |first8=Michael |last9=Bruce |first9=Nigel |last10=Héroux |first10=Marie-Eve |last11=Hirvonen |first11=Maija-Riitta |date=2015-09-24 |title=Health impacts of anthropogenic biomass burning in the developed world |url=https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/early/2015/09/24/13993003.01865-2014 |journal=European Respiratory Journal |volume=46 |issue=6 |pages=1577–1588 |language=en |doi=10.1183/13993003.01865-2014 |issn=0903-1936 |pmid=26405285|s2cid=41697986 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Wood smoke (for example from [[wildfire]]s or wood ovens) can cause lung damage,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pca.state.mn.us/air/wood-smoke-and-your-health|title=Wood smoke and your health|date=November 16, 2009|website=Minnesota Pollution Control Agency|access-date=2 May 2021|archive-date=14 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514231826/https://www.pca.state.mn.us/air/wood-smoke-and-your-health|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iatp.org/news/wood-stove-pollution-is-a-burning-issue|title=Wood stove pollution is a burning issue|website=www.iatp.org|access-date=2 May 2021|archive-date=9 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209025928/https://www.iatp.org/news/wood-stove-pollution-is-a-burning-issue|url-status=live}}</ref> artery damage and DNA damage<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Danielsen |first1=Pernille Høgh |last2=Møller |first2=Peter |last3=Jensen |first3=Keld Alstrup |last4=Sharma |first4=Anoop Kumar |last5=Wallin |first5=Håkan |last6=Bossi |first6=Rossana |last7=Autrup |first7=Herman |last8=Mølhave |first8=Lars |last9=Ravanat |first9=Jean-Luc |last10=Briedé |first10=Jacob Jan |last11=de Kok |first11=Theo Martinus |last12=Loft |first12=Steffen |title=Oxidative Stress, DNA Damage, and Inflammation Induced by Ambient Air and Wood Smoke Particulate Matter in Human A549 and THP-1 Cell Lines |journal=Chemical Research in Toxicology |date=18 February 2011 |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=168–184 |doi=10.1021/tx100407m |pmid=21235221 |s2cid=11668269 }}</ref> leading to cancer,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Navarro |first1=Kathleen M. |last2=Kleinman |first2=Michael T. |last3=Mackay |first3=Chris E. |last4=Reinhardt |first4=Timothy E. |last5=Balmes |first5=John R. |last6=Broyles |first6=George A. |last7=Ottmar |first7=Roger D. |last8=Naher |first8=Luke P. |last9=Domitrovich |first9=Joseph W. |title=Wildland firefighter smoke exposure and risk of lung cancer and cardiovascular disease mortality |journal=Environmental Research |date=June 2019 |volume=173 |pages=462–468 |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2019.03.060 |pmid=30981117 |bibcode=2019ER....173..462N |s2cid=108987257 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://asthma.org.au/about-us/media/dont-underestimate-the-health-dangers-of-wood-smoke/|title=Don't underestimate the health dangers of wood smoke|access-date=2 May 2021|archive-date=26 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326062804/https://asthma.org.au/about-us/media/dont-underestimate-the-health-dangers-of-wood-smoke/|url-status=live}}</ref> other respiratory and lung disease and cardiovascular disease.<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bede-Ojimadu |first1=Onyinyechi |last2=Orisakwe |first2=Orish Ebere |title=Exposure to Wood Smoke and Associated Health Effects in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Review |journal=Annals of Global Health |date=20 March 2020 |volume=86 |issue=1 |page=32 |doi=10.5334/aogh.2725 |pmid=32211302 |pmc=7082829 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Air pollution, particulate matter and wood smoke may also cause brain damage because of particulates breaching the cardiovascular system and into the brain,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=News Feature: How air pollution threatens brain health|first=Lynne|last=Peeples|date=June 23, 2020|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=117|issue=25|pages=13856–13860|doi=10.1073/pnas.2008940117|pmid=32493753|pmc=7322062|bibcode=2020PNAS..11713856P|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/oct/06/air-pollution-particles-in-young-brains-linked-to-alzheimers-damage|title=Air pollution particles in young brains linked to Alzheimer's damage|date=October 6, 2020|website=The Guardian|access-date=22 January 2022|archive-date=22 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122001335/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/oct/06/air-pollution-particles-in-young-brains-linked-to-alzheimers-damage|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.the-scientist.com/features/air-pollution-may-damage-peoples-brains-66473|title=Air Pollution May Damage People's Brains|website=The Scientist Magazine®|access-date=2 May 2021|archive-date=12 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512060730/https://www.the-scientist.com/features/air-pollution-may-damage-peoples-brains-66473|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://abc7news.com/2719037/|title=Stanford study shows wood smoke can harm the brain|date=December 2, 2017|website=ABC7 San Francisco|access-date=3 May 2021|archive-date=1 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801121207/https://abc7news.com/2719037/|url-status=live}}</ref> which can increase the risk of developmental disorders,<ref>{{cite journal 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|last3=Kalkbrenner |first3=Amy |last4=Windham |first4=Gayle |last5=Halladay |first5=Alycia |last6=Koustas |first6=Erica |last7=Lawler |first7=Cindy |last8=Davidson |first8=Lisette |last9=Daniels |first9=Natalyn |last10=Newschaffer |first10=Craig |last11=Woodruff |first11=Tracey |title=A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Multiple Airborne Pollutants and Autism Spectrum Disorder |journal=PLOS ONE |date=21 September 2016 |volume=11 |issue=9 |pages=e0161851 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0161851 |pmid=27653281 |pmc=5031428 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1161851L |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Weisskopf |first1=Marc G. |last2=Kioumourtzoglou |first2=Marianthi-Anna |last3=Roberts |first3=Andrea L. |title=Air Pollution and Autism Spectrum Disorders: Causal or Confounded? |journal=Current Environmental Health Reports |date=December 2015 |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=430–439 |doi=10.1007/s40572-015-0073-9 |pmid=26399256 |pmc=4737505 |bibcode=2015CEHR....2..430W }}</ref> neurodegenerative disorders<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fu |first1=Pengfei |last2=Yung |first2=Ken Kin Lam |title=Air Pollution and Alzheimer's Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=Journal of Alzheimer's Disease |date=15 September 2020 |volume=77 |issue=2 |pages=701–714 |doi=10.3233/JAD-200483 |pmid=32741830 |s2cid=220942039 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tsai |first1=Tsung-Lin |last2=Lin |first2=Yu-Ting |last3=Hwang |first3=Bing-Fang |last4=Nakayama |first4=Shoji F. |last5=Tsai |first5=Chon-Haw |last6=Sun |first6=Xian-Liang |last7=Ma |first7=Chaochen |last8=Jung |first8=Chau-Ren |title=Fine particulate matter is a potential determinant of Alzheimer's disease: A systemic review and meta-analysis |journal=Environmental Research |date=October 2019 |volume=177 |page=108638 |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2019.108638 |pmid=31421449 |bibcode=2019ER....17708638T |s2cid=201057595 }}</ref> mental disorders,<ref name = suicide>{{cite journal |last1=Braithwaite |first1=Isobel |last2=Zhang |first2=Shuo |last3=Kirkbride |first3=James B. |last4=Osborn |first4=David P. J. |last5=Hayes |first5=Joseph F. |title=Air Pollution (Particulate Matter) Exposure and Associations with Depression, Anxiety, Bipolar, Psychosis and Suicide Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |date=December 2019 |volume=127 |issue=12 |page=126002 |doi=10.1289/EHP4595 |pmid=31850801 |pmc=6957283 |bibcode=2019EnvHP.127l6002B }}</ref><ref name = economic>{{cite journal |last1=Lu |first1=Jackson G |title=Air pollution: A systematic review of its psychological, economic, and social effects |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |date=April 2020 |volume=32 |pages=52–65 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.06.024 |pmid=31557706 |s2cid=199147061 }}</ref><ref name = suicidedep>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Qisijing |last2=Wang |first2=Wanzhou |last3=Gu |first3=Xuelin |last4=Deng |first4=Furong |last5=Wang |first5=Xueqin |last6=Lin |first6=Hualiang |last7=Guo |first7=Xinbiao |last8=Wu |first8=Shaowei |title=Association between particulate matter air pollution and risk of depression and suicide: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |date=February 2021 |volume=28 |issue=8 |pages=9029–9049 |doi=10.1007/s11356-021-12357-3 |pmid=33481201 |bibcode=2021ESPR...28.9029L |s2cid=231677095 }}</ref> and suicidal behavior,<ref name = suicide/><ref name = suicidedep/> although studies on the link between [[Depression (clinical)|depression]] and some air pollutants are not consistent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fan |first1=Shu-Jun |last2=Heinrich |first2=Joachim |last3=Bloom |first3=Michael S. |last4=Zhao |first4=Tian-Yu |last5=Shi |first5=Tong-Xing |last6=Feng |first6=Wen-Ru |last7=Sun |first7=Yi |last8=Shen |first8=Ji-Chuan |last9=Yang |first9=Zhi-Cong |last10=Yang |first10=Bo-Yi |last11=Dong |first11=Guang-Hui |title=Ambient air pollution and depression: A systematic review with meta-analysis up to 2019 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |date=January 2020 |volume=701 |page=134721 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134721 |pmid=31715478 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.70134721F |s2cid=207944384 |url=https://push-zb.helmholtz-muenchen.de/frontdoor.php?source_opus=57348 |access-date=25 January 2022 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331123210/https://push-zb.helmholtz-muenchen.de/frontdoor.php?source_opus=57348 |url-status=live }}</ref> At least one study has identified "the abundant presence in the human brain of magnetite nanoparticles that match precisely the high-temperature magnetite nanospheres, formed by combustion and/or friction-derived heating, which are prolific in urban, airborne particulate matter (PM)."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Maher |first1=Barbara A. |last2=Ahmed |first2=Imad A. M. |last3=Karloukovski |first3=Vassil |last4=MacLaren |first4=Donald A. |last5=Foulds |first5=Penelope G. |last6=Allsop |first6=David |last7=Mann |first7=David M. A. |last8=Torres-Jardón |first8=Ricardo |last9=Calderon-Garciduenas |first9=Lilian |title=Magnetite pollution nanoparticles in the human brain |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=27 September 2016 |volume=113 |issue=39 |pages=10797–10801 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1605941113 |pmid=27601646 |pmc=5047173 |bibcode=2016PNAS..11310797M |doi-access=free }}</ref> Air pollution has also been linked to a range of other psychosocial problems.<ref name = economic/>