Editing Sigmund Freud (section)

===Early career and marriage===
In 1882 Freud began his medical career at [[Vienna General Hospital]]. His research work in cerebral anatomy led to the publication in 1884 of an influential paper on the palliative effects of cocaine, and his work on [[aphasia]] would form the basis of his first book ''On Aphasia: A Critical Study'', published in 1891.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wallesch |first=Claus |year=2004 |title=History of Aphasia Freud as an aphasiologist |journal=Aphasiology |volume=18 |issue=April |pages=389–399 |doi=10.1080/02687030344000599 |s2cid=144976195}}</ref> Over a three-year period, Freud worked in various departments of the hospital. His time spent in [[Theodor Meynert]]'s [[Psychiatry|psychiatric]] clinic and as a [[locum]] in a local asylum led to an increased interest in clinical work. His substantial body of published research led to his appointment as a university lecturer or [[docent]] in [[neuropathology]] in 1885, a non-salaried post but one which entitled him to give lectures at the University of Vienna.<ref>Gay 2006, pp. 42–47.</ref>

In 1886 Freud resigned his hospital post and entered private practice specializing in "nervous disorders". The same year he married [[Martha Bernays]], the granddaughter of [[Isaac Bernays]], a chief rabbi in Hamburg. Freud was, as an [[Atheism|atheist]], dismayed at the requirement in Austria for a Jewish religious ceremony and briefly considered, before dismissing, the prospect of joining the Protestant 'Confession' to avoid one.<ref>Jones, Ernest.&nbsp;''Sigmund Freud: Life and Work'', Vol. 1. London: Hogarth Press, 1953, p. 183, see also Vol. 2 pp. 19–20.</ref> A civil ceremony for Bernays and Freud took place on 13 September and a religious ceremony took place the following day, with Freud having been hastily tutored in the Hebrew prayers.<ref>Roudinesco, Elizabeth (2016). ''Freud: In His Time and Ours''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 48–49.</ref> The Freuds had six children: Mathilde (b. 1887), Jean-Martin (b. 1889), Oliver (b. 1891), [[Ernst L. Freud|Ernst]] (b. 1892), Sophie (b. 1893), and [[Anna Freud|Anna]] (b. 1895). From 1891 until they left Vienna in 1938, Freud and his family lived in an apartment at [[Sigmund Freud Museum (Vienna)|Berggasse 19]], near [[Innere Stadt]].

On 8 December 1897 Freud was initiated into the German Jewish cultural association [[B'nai B'rith]], to which he remained linked for all his life. Freud gave a speech on the interpretation of dreams, which had an enthusiastic reception. It anticipated the [[The Interpretation of Dreams|book of the same name]], which was published for the first time two years later.<ref>''Sigmund Freud and the B'Nai B'Rith''. {{doi|10.1177/000306517902700209}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Elisabetta Cicciola (Historical Archive of the [[Grand Orient of Italy]] |publisher=[[Leo Samuele Olschki|Leo Olschki]]|journal=[[Physis (journal)|Physis-Rivista internazionale di storia della scienza]]|volume=LIV|year=2019|number=Fasc.1–2|title=Freud e l' ordine del B'nai B'rith: un' appartenenza lunga quarant'anni|series=Nuova serie|language=it|url=https://www.academia.edu/44614103}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bnaibrith.org/saving-sigmund-freud/|title=Saving Sigmund Freud {{!}} Interview with Former Newsweek Editor Andrew Nagorski|date=November 10, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/sigmund-freud-judaic-treasures|title=The Starry Sky & the Still Small Voice: Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939)|publisher=[[Jewish Virtual Library]]}}</ref>

[[File:Wien - Wohnhaus Sigmund Freuds.JPG|thumb|left|alt=photograph|Freud's home at [[Sigmund Freud Museum (Vienna)|Berggasse 19]], Vienna]]
In 1896, Minna Bernays, Martha Freud's sister, became a permanent member of the Freud household after the death of her fiancé. The close relationship she formed with Freud led to rumours, started by [[Carl Jung]], of an affair. The discovery of a Swiss hotel guest-book entry for 13 August 1898, signed by Freud whilst travelling with his sister-in-law, has been presented as evidence of the affair.<ref>[[Peter Swales (historian)|Peter J. Swales]], "Freud, Minna Bernays, and the Conquest of Rome: New Light on the Origins of Psychoanalysis", ''The New American Review'', Spring/Summer 1982, pp. 1–23, which makes a case that Freud impregnated Minna and arranged an abortion for her.
* see Gay 2006, pp. 76, 752–53 for a sceptical rejoinder to Swales.
* for the discovery of the hotel log see {{Cite news |last=Blumenthal |first=Ralph |date=24 December 2006 |title=Hotel log hints at desire that Freud didn't repress – Europe – International Herald Tribune |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/24/world/europe/24iht-web.1224freud.3998915.html |url-status=live |access-date=4 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613082851/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/24/world/europe/24iht-web.1224freud.3998915.html?pagewanted=all |archive-date=13 June 2017}}
* see also 'Minna Bernays as "Mrs. Freud": What Sort of Relationship Did Sigmund Freud Have with His Sister-in-Law?' by Franz Maciejewski and Jeremy Gaines, ''American Imago'', Volume 65, Number 1, Spring 2008, pp. 5–21.</ref>

Freud began [[tobacco smoking|smoking tobacco]] at age 24; initially a cigarette smoker, he became a cigar smoker.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Eiland |first=Murray |date=2014 |title=Cigar Box Heraldry |url=https://www.academia.edu/8013409 |journal=The Armiger's News |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=1–4 |via=academia.edu}}</ref> He believed smoking enhanced his capacity to work and that he could exercise [[self-control]] in moderating it. Despite health warnings from colleague [[Wilhelm Fliess]], he remained a smoker, eventually developing [[Oral cancer|buccal cancer]].<ref>Gay 2006, pp. 77, 169.</ref> Freud suggested to Fliess in 1897 that addictions, including that to tobacco, were substitutes for [[masturbation]], "the one great habit."<ref>Freud and Bonaparte 2009, pp. 238–39.</ref>

Freud had greatly admired his philosophy tutor, [[Franz Brentano]], who was known for his theories of perception and introspection. Brentano discussed the possible existence of the unconscious mind in his ''[[Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint]]'' (1874). Although Brentano denied its existence, his discussion of the unconscious probably helped introduce Freud to the concept.<ref name="Vitzpages5354">Vitz 1988, pp. 53–54.</ref> Freud owned and made use of [[Charles Darwin]]'s major evolutionary writings and was also influenced by [[Eduard von Hartmann]]'s ''[[The Philosophy of the Unconscious]]'' (1869). Other texts of importance to Freud were by [[Gustav Fechner|Fechner]] and [[Johann Friedrich Herbart|Herbart]],<ref>Sulloway 1992 [1979], pp. 66–67, 116.</ref> with the latter's ''Psychology as Science'' arguably considered to be of underrated significance in this respect.<ref>Darian Leader, ''Freud's Footnotes'', London, Faber, 2000, pp. 34–45.</ref> Freud also drew on the work of [[Theodor Lipps]], who was one of the main contemporary theorists of the concepts of the unconscious and empathy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pigman |first=G.W. |year=1995 |title=Freud and the history of empathy |journal=The International Journal of Psycho-Analysis |volume=76 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=237–56 |pmid=7628894}}</ref>

Though Freud was reluctant to associate his psychoanalytic insights with prior philosophical theories, attention has been drawn to analogies between his work and that of both [[Schopenhauer]]<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8005756/ |quote=A close study of Schopenhauer's central work, 'The World as Will and Representation', reveals that certain of Freud's most characteristic doctrines were first articulated by Schopenhauer. Schopenhauer's concept of the will contains the foundations of what in Freud become the concepts of the unconscious and the id. Schopenhauer's writings on madness anticipate Freud's theory of repression and his first theory of the aetiology of neurosis. Schopenhauer's work contains aspects of what becomes the theory of free association. And most importantly, Schopenhauer articulates major parts of the Freudian theory of sexuality. These correspondences raise a question about Freud's denial that he even read Schopenhauer until late in life. |pmid=8005756 |year=1994 |last1=Young |first1=C. |last2=Brook |first2=A. |title=Schopenhauer and Freud |journal=The International Journal of Psycho-Analysis |volume=75 ( Pt 1) |pages=101–118 }}</ref> and [[Nietzsche]]. In 1908, Freud said that he occasionally read Nietzsche, and was strongly fascinated by his writings, but did not study him, because he found Nietzsche's "intuitive insights" resembled too much his own work at the time, and also because he was overwhelmed by the "wealth of ideas" he encountered when he read Nietzsche. Freud sometimes would deny the influence of Nietzsche's ideas. One historian quotes Peter L. Rudnytsky, who says that based on Freud's correspondence with his adolescent friend Eduard Silberstein, Freud read Nietzsche's ''[[The Birth of Tragedy]]'' and probably the first two of the ''[[Untimely Meditations]]'' when he was seventeen.<ref>Paul Roazen, in Dufresne, Todd (ed). ''Returns of the French Freud: Freud, Lacan, and Beyond''. New York and London: Routledge Press, 1997, pp. 13–15.</ref><ref>Rudnytsky, Peter L. ''Freud and Oedipus''. Columbia University Press (1987), p. 198. {{ISBN|978-0231063531}}</ref> Freud bought Nietzsche's collected works in 1900; telling Wilhelm Fliess that he hoped to find in Nietzsche's works "the words for much that remains mute in me." Later, he said he had not yet opened them.<ref>Gay 2006, p. 45.</ref> Freud came to treat Nietzsche's writings, according to Peter Gay, "as texts to be resisted far more than to be studied."<ref>Gay 1988, p. 45</ref> His interest in philosophy declined after he decided on a career in [[neurology]].<ref>Holt 1989, p. 242.</ref>

Freud read [[William Shakespeare]] in English; his understanding of human psychology may have been partially derived from Shakespeare's plays.<ref>Bloom 1994, p. 346.</ref>

Freud's Jewish origins and his allegiance to his secular Jewish identity were of significant influence in the formation of his intellectual and moral outlook, especially concerning his intellectual non-conformism, as he pointed out in his ''Autobiographical Study''.<ref>Robert, Marthe (1976) ''From Oedipus to Moses: Freud's Jewish Identity'' New York: Anchor, pp. 3–6.</ref> They would also have a substantial effect on the content of psychoanalytic ideas, particularly in respect of their common concerns with depth interpretation and "the bounding of desire by law".<ref>Frosh, Stephen (2006) "Psychoanalysis and Judaism" in Black, David M. (ed.) ''Psychoanalysis and Religion in the 21st Century: Competitors or Collaborators?'', London and New York: Routledge, pp. 205–06.</ref>