Editing Scholasticism (section)

=== Early scholasticism ===
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The first significant renewal of learning in the West came with the [[Carolingian Renaissance]] of the [[Early Middle Ages]]. [[Charlemagne]], advised by [[Peter of Pisa]] and [[Alcuin of York]], attracted the scholars of England and Ireland, where some Greek works continued to survive in the original. By a 787 decree, he established schools at every abbey in his empire. These schools, from which the name ''scholasticism'' derived,{{dubious|date=May 2024}}<!--book unavailable but almost certainly unsupported since entirely untrue; scholasticism not immediately connected to Charlemagne's schools--> became centers of medieval learning.<ref>[[Marcia Colish|Colish, Marcia L.]] ''Medieval foundations of the western intellectual tradition, 400–1400.'' Yale University Press, 1999, 66–67</ref>

During this period, knowledge of Ancient Greek had vanished in the West except in Ireland, where its teaching and use was fairly common in its [[monastic school]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sandys |first1=John Edwin |author1-link=John Sandys (classicist) |title=A History of Classical Scholarship |date=1903 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=438 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=godfAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Irish scholars had a considerable presence in the [[Carolingian Empire|Frankish court]], where they were renowned for their learning.<ref name="StanfordEriugena">{{cite web |title=John Scottus Eriugena |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scottus-eriugena/ |website=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |publisher=[[Stanford University]] |date=2004-10-17 |access-date=2008-07-21 }}</ref> Among them was [[Johannes Scotus Eriugena]] (815–877), one of the founders of scholasticism.<ref name="Gothic">{{harvnb|Toman|2007|p=10}}: "[[Peter Abelard|Abelard]] himself was&nbsp;... together with John Scotus Erigena (9th century), and [[Lanfranc]] and [[Anselm of Canterbury]] (both 11th century), one of the founders of scholasticism."</ref> Eriugena was the most significant Irish intellectual of the early monastic period and an outstanding philosopher in terms of originality.<ref name="StanfordEriugena"/> He had considerable familiarity with the Greek language and translated many works into Latin, affording access to the [[Cappadocian Fathers]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Christian theology|Greek theological tradition]].<ref name="StanfordEriugena"/> Three other primary founders of scholasticism were the 11th-century archbishops [[Lanfranc of Canterbury|Lanfranc]] and [[Anselm of Canterbury|Anselm]] of [[archdiocese of Canterbury|Canterbury]] in [[Kingdom of England|England]] and [[Peter Abelard]] in [[Kingdom of France|France]].<ref name="Gothic"/>

This period saw the beginning of the "[[Transmission of Greek philosophical ideas in the Middle Ages|rediscovery]]" of many Greek works which had been lost to the Latin West. As early as the latter half of the 10th century, the [[Toledo School of Translators]] in [[Al-Andalus|Muslim Spain]] had begun translating Arabic texts into Latin.{{sfn|Lindberg|1978|pp=60–61}} After a successful burst of [[Reconquista]] in the 12th century, Spain opened even further for Christian scholars and, as these Europeans encountered [[Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)|Judeo-Islamic philosophies]], they opened a wealth of Arab and Judaic knowledge of mathematics and astronomy.<ref name=institutions>Grant, Edward, and Emeritus Edward Grant. The foundations of modern science in the Middle Ages: their religious, institutional and intellectual contexts. Cambridge University Press, 1996, 23–28</ref> The [[Latin translations of the 12th century]] also included figures like [[Constantine the African]] in Italy and [[James of Venice]] in Constantinople. Scholars such as [[Adelard of Bath]] traveled to Spain and Sicily, translating works on astronomy and mathematics, including the first complete translation of [[Euclid]]'s ''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements]]'' into Latin.{{sfn|Clagett|1982|p=356}}

At the same time, the [[School of Chartres]] produced [[Bernard of Chartres]]'s commentaries on [[Plato]]'s ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' and a range of works by [[William of Conches]] that attempted to reconcile the use of classical pagan and philosophical sources in a medieval Christian concept using the kludge of {{lang|la|integumentum}}, treating the obviously [[Heresy in the Catholic Church|heretical]] surface meanings as coverings disguising a deeper (and more orthodox) truth.<ref>{{citation |last=Adamson |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Adamson (philosopher) |title=Medieval Philosophy |series=''A History of Philosophy without Any Gaps'', Vol. 4 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2019 |isbn=978-0-19-884240-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hverDwAAQBAJ |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hverDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 93 ff] }}.</ref> Abelard himself was condemned by [[Bernard of Clairvaux]] at the [[1141 Council of Sens]] and William avoided a similar fate through systematic self-bowdlerization of his early work, but his commentaries and encyclopedic {{lang|la|[[De Philosophia Mundi]]}} and {{lang|la|[[Dragmaticon]]}} were miscredited to earlier scholars like [[Venerable Bede|Bede]] and widely disseminated. [[Anselm of Laon]] systematized the production of the [[gloss (annotation)|gloss]] on Scripture, followed by the rise to prominence of [[dialectic]] (the middle subject of the medieval [[trivium (education)|trivium]]) in the work of [[Abelard]]. [[Peter Lombard]] produced a collection of ''[[Sentences]],'' or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities.<ref>{{cite web |first=Andrew |last=Hoffecker |title=Peter Lombard, Master of the Sentences|url=http://www.ligonier.org/learn/articles/peter-lombard-master-of-the-sentences/|publisher=Ligonier Ministries}}</ref>

More recently, [[Ulrich Leinsle|Leinsle]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leinsle |first=Ulrich G. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1303318773 |title=Introduction to Scholastic Theology |isbn=0-8132-1925-6 |oclc=1303318773}}</ref> [[Alex Novikoff|Novikoff]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Novikoff |first=Alex J. |date=April 2012 |title=Toward a Cultural History of Scholastic Disputation |journal=The American Historical Review |language=en |volume=117 |issue=2 |pages=331–364 |doi=10.1086/ahr.117.2.331|s2cid=163903902 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and others have argued against the idea that scholasticism primarily derived from philosophical contact, emphasizing its continuity with earlier [[Patristic Christianity]]. This remains, however, a minority viewpoint.{{cn|date=September 2024}}