Editing Roanoke Colony (section)

==Lane colony==
{{See also|List of colonists at Roanoke}}
[[File:WP Richard Grenville.jpg|thumb|Sir [[Richard Grenville]]]]

For the first colony in Virginia, Raleigh planned a largely military operation focused on the exploration and evaluation of natural resources. The intended number of colonists was 69, but approximately 600 men were sent in the voyage, with about half intended to remain at the colony, to be followed by a second wave later. [[Ralph Lane]] was appointed governor of the colony, and Philip Amadas would serve as admiral, although the fleet commander Sir Richard Grenville led the overall mission.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 53–56}} Civilian attendants included  [[Joachim Gans]], metallurgist, [[Thomas Harriot]], a scientist, and [[John White (colonist and artist)|John White]], an artist. Manteo and Wanchese, returning home from their visit to England, were also passengers on the voyage.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=45–49}}

===Voyage===
The fleet consisted of seven ships: The [[galleass]] ''Tiger'' (Grenville's flagship, with Fernandes as pilot), the [[flyboat]] ''Roebuck'' (captained by John Clarke), ''Red Lion'' (under the command of George Raymond), ''Elizabeth'' (captained by [[Thomas Cavendish]]), ''Dorothy'' (Raleigh's personal ship, perhaps captained by Arthur Barlowe) and two small [[Pinnace (ship's boat)|pinnace]]s.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 55–56}}

[[File:Plymouth 1540.png|thumb| Plymouth, [[Devon]], was the burgeoning home port of Drake, Gilbert, Grenville, and Raleigh]]
On April 9, 1585, the fleet departed [[Plymouth]], heading south through the [[Bay of Biscay]]. A severe storm off the coast of Portugal separated ''Tiger'' from the rest of the fleet and sank one of the pinnaces. Fortunately, Fernandes had a plan for such an occurrence, wherein the ships would meet up at Mosquetal,{{efn|The English called this place "Bay of Muskito" (Mosquito Bay) while the Spanish called it "Mosquetal".{{Sfn|Quinn|1955|pp= 181, 740}} the precise location of which is uncertain. [[David Beers Quinn]] identified Mosquetal as Tallaboa Bay in 1955, but he later concurred with [[Samuel Eliot Morison]]'s 1971 conclusion that the name referred to Guayanilla Bay,{{Sfn|Morison|1971|pp= 633–635, 655}}{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 57, 430–31}}}} on the south coast of [[Puerto Rico]]. Proceeding alone, ''Tiger'' made good speed for the [[Caribbean]], arriving at the rendezvous point on May 11, ahead of the other ships.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 57}}

[[File:Mosquetal fort 23 May 1585.jpg|thumb|Ralph Lane's fort at Mosquetal]]
While awaiting the fleet, Grenville established a base camp, where his crew could rest and defend themselves from Spanish forces. Lane's men used the opportunity as practice for building the fortifications that would be needed at the new colony. The crew also set about replacing the lost pinnace, forging nails and sawing local lumber to construct a new ship.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 57}} ''Elizabeth'' arrived on May&nbsp;19, shortly after the completion of the fort and pinnace.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 58}}{{Sfn|Milton|2001|p= 91}}

The remainder of the fleet never arrived at Mosquetal. At least one of the ships encountered difficulties near Jamaica and ran out of supplies, causing its captain to send twenty of his crew ashore. Eventually ''Roebuck'', ''Red Lion'', and ''Dorothy'' continued to the [[Outer Banks]], arriving by mid-June. ''Red Lion'' left about thirty men on Croatoan Island and departed for privateering in Newfoundland. In the meantime, Grenville established contact with local Spanish authorities, in the hopes of obtaining fresh provisions. When the Spanish failed to deliver the promised supplies, Grenville suspected they would soon attack, so he and his ships abandoned the temporary fort.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 60, 64}}

[[File:Cabo Rojo fort 26 May 1585.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Collecting salt in Salinas Bay]]
Grenville captured two Spanish ships in the [[Mona Passage]], adding them to his fleet. Lane took one of these ships to [[Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico|Salinas Bay]], where he captured salt mounds collected by the Spanish. Lane again built fortifications to protect his men as they brought the salt aboard. Grenville's ships then sailed to [[La Isabela]], where the Spanish set aside hostilities to trade with the well-armed English fleet. On June&nbsp;7, Grenville left [[Hispaniola]] to continue to the Outer Banks.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 60–63}}

The fleet sailed through an inlet at Wococon Island (near present-day [[Ocracoke Inlet]]) on June 26. ''Tiger'' struck a [[shoal]], ruining most of the food supplies and nearly destroying the ship.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 63}} There are indications that Grenville's fleet was supposed to spend the winter with the new colony, perhaps to immediately begin using it as a privateering base. The wreck of ''Tiger'', however, made that impossible. The remaining provisions could not support a settlement as large as had been planned. Moreover, the shallow inlets of the Outer Banks made the region unsuitable as a base for large ships. The colony's top priority would now be to locate a better harbour.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|p= 20}}

After repairs, ''Tiger'' continued with the rest of the fleet to Port Ferdinando, where they reunited with ''Roebuck'' and ''Dorothy''. The men left behind by ''Red Lion'' were presumably also located during this time.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 63–64}} On August&nbsp;5, John Arundell took command of one of the faster vessels and set sail for England, to report the expedition's safe arrival.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 75}}

===Establishment of the colony===
[[File:Burning of Aquascogoc 1585.jpg|thumb|The 1585 assault on [[Aquascogoc]] village]]

The loss of provisions from the ''Tiger'' meant that the colony would support far fewer settlers than originally planned. Grenville decided that only about 100 men would stay with Lane, which would be enough to fulfill the colony's objectives until another fleet, scheduled to leave England in June&nbsp;1585, could deliver a second wave of colonists and supplies.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 64–67}} However, Grenville could not know that this expedition had been redirected to Newfoundland, to alert fishing fleets that the Spanish had begun seizing English commercial vessels in retaliation for attacks by English privateers.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 85}} Until a resupply mission could be arranged, Lane's colony would be heavily dependent on the generosity of the natives.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|p= 23}}

While the ''Tiger'' was under repair, Grenville organized an expedition to explore Pamlico Sound and the Secotan villages of [[Aquascogoc]], [[Pamlico]], and Secotan. His party made contact with the locals, presenting Harriot and White with an opportunity to extensively study Native American society.{{Sfn|Milton|2001|pp= 102–110}} Although much of their research did not survive the 1586 evacuation of the colony, Harriot's extensive survey of Virginia's inhabitants and natural resources was published in 1588, with engravings of White's illustrations included in the 1590 edition.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 157–158}}<ref name="Harriot">{{cite book |last=Harriot |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Harriot |title=A briefe and true report of the new found land of Virginia, of the commodities and of the nature and manners of the naturall inhabitants. Discouered by the English colony there seated by Sir Richard Greinuile Knight in the yeere 1585. Which Remained Vnder the gouernement of twelue monethes, at the speciall charge and direction of the Honourable Sir Walter Raleigh Knight lord Warden of the stanneries Who therein hath beene fauoured and authorized by her Maiestie and her letters patents. |location=Frankfurt |publisher=Johannes Wechel |year=1590 |url=https://archive.org/details/briefetruereport00harr/ |access-date=September 22, 2019}}</ref>

Following this initial exploration, a silver cup was reported missing. Believing the item stolen, Grenville sent Amadas to lead a detachment back to Aquascogoc to demand the return of the missing property. When the villagers did not produce the cup, the English decided that severe retribution was necessary in order to avoid the appearance of weakness. Amadas and his men burnt down the entire town and its crops, sending the natives fleeing.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|p= 72}}{{Sfn|Anon.|1600|pp= 298–299}}

[[File:Fort Raleigh (artist's reconstruction).jpg|thumb|An artist's rendering of [[Ralph Lane]]'s Roanoke fort; ''author unknown, 1962'']]
Manteo arranged a meeting for Grenville and Lane with Granganimeo, to provide land for the English settlement on Roanoke Island. Both sides agreed that the island was strategically located for access to the ocean and to avoid detection from Spanish patrols. Lane began construction of a fort on the north side of the island.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=58–59}} There are no surviving renderings of the Roanoke fort, but it was likely similar in structure to the one at Mosquetal.{{Sfn|Harrington|1962|p= 27}}

Grenville set sail for England aboard the ''Tiger'' on August 25, 1585. Days later, in [[Action off Bermuda (1585)|Bermuda]], Grenville raided a large Spanish [[galleon]], the ''Santa Maria de San Vicente'', which had become separated from the rest of its fleet.{{Sfn|Gabriel-Powell|2016|pp= 29–34}} The merchant ship, which Grenville took back to England as a prize, was loaded with enough treasure to make the entire Roanoke expedition profitable, spurring excitement in Queen Elizabeth's court about Raleigh's colonisation efforts.{{Sfn|Horn|2010|pp= 84–86}}

The ''Roebuck'' left Roanoke on September 8, 1585, leaving behind one of the pinnaces under the command of Amadas.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 82, 92}} Records indicate that 107&nbsp;men remained with Lane at the colony. However, historians disagree as to whether White returned to England with Grenville, or spent the winter at Roanoke despite his absence from the list of colonists.{{Sfn|Horn|2010|p= 259}}{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 82}}

===Exploration===
[[File:Roanoke map 1584.JPG|thumb|''La Virginea Pars'' map, by [[John White (colonist and artist)|John White]]]]

Many of the colonists had joined the mission expecting to discover sources of gold and silver. When no such sources were located, these men became dispirited and decided the entire operation was a waste of their time. The English also researched where the local Native Americans obtained their copper, but ultimately never tracked the metal to its origin.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 93–95}} The colonists spent the autumn of 1585 acquiring corn from the neighboring villages, to augment their limited supplies. The colony apparently obtained enough corn (along with venison, fish, and oysters) to sustain them through the winter.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 91}} Little information survives, however, about what transpired at the colony between September 1585 and March 1586, making a full assessment of the winter impossible.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 99}} The colonists most likely exhausted their English provisions and American corn by October, and the resulting monotony of their remaining food sources no doubt contributed to the men's low morale.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 104, 108}}

Amadas spent the winter exploring [[Chesapeake Bay]], traveling as far as [[Cape Henry]] and the [[James River]]. While there his party made contact with the [[Chesapeake people|Chesapeake]] villages of Chesepioc and [[Skicóak]]. The Secotans had described Skicóak as the largest city in the region, possibly leading the English to expect something like the wealthy [[Inca Empire|Inca]] and [[Aztecs|Aztec]] kingdoms encountered by the Spanish. Amadas instead found a more modest settlement, although he was impressed with the area's climate and [[soil quality]].{{Sfn|Horn|2010|pp= 87–89}} Harriot and Gans explored the Virginia territory, meeting Native American tribes and taking stock of natural resources. During his travels, Harriot and his assistants collected data that would eventually be used to produce White's ''[[La Virginea Pars]]'' map.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=63–64}}

Although 16th-century science could not explain the phenomenon, Harriot noticed that each town the colonists visited quickly suffered a deadly epidemic, which may have been [[influenza]] or [[smallpox]]. Some of the Secotan suspected the disease was caused by supernatural forces unleashed by the English. When Wingina fell sick, his own people could not treat him, but he recovered after requesting prayers from the English. Impressed, Wingina asked the colonists to share this power with other stricken communities, which only hastened the spread of disease. The epidemic likely had a severe impact on the fall harvest, at a time when Lane's colony would be heavily dependent on its neighbors to supplement its limited food supply.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=64–65}}{{Sfn|Horn|2010|pp= 89–91}}

===Hostilities and food shortages===
[[File:A chiefe Herowan.jpg|thumb|Portrait of a [[weroance]], who may have been [[Wingina]]]]

By spring, relations between the Secotan and the colony were strained, most likely due to the colony's over-reliance on Secotan food. The death of Granganimeo, who had been a powerful advocate for the colony, apparently helped to turn Wingina against the English. Wingina changed his name to "Pemisapan" ("one who watches"), suggesting a newly cautious and vigilant policy, and established a new temporary tribal capital on Roanoke Island. The English did not initially recognize that these developments represented a threat to their interests.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|pp= 75–76}}

In March, Lane consulted Pemisapan about a plan to explore the mainland beyond Secotan territory. Pemisapan supported the plan and advised Lane that the [[Chowanoke]] leader Menatonon was meeting with his allies to plan an attack on the English, and that three thousand warriors had gathered at Choanoac. At the same time, Pemisapan sent word to Menatonon that the English would be coming, ensuring that both sides would expect hostilities. When Lane's well-armed party arrived at Choanoac, he found representatives of the Chowanoke, Mangoak, [[Weapemeoc Indians|Weapemeoc]], and Moratuc. Since this gathering was not planning an attack, Lane caught them by surprise. He easily captured Menatonon, who informed him that it was Pemisapan who had requested the council in the first place.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|pp= 76–77}}{{Sfn|Donegan|2013|p=293}}{{Sfn|Horn|2010|pp= 93–94}}

Menatonon quickly gained Lane's trust by offering information about lucrative opportunities in lands the English had not yet discovered. He described a rich and powerful king to the northeast (presumably the leader of the [[Powhatan]]), warning that Lane should bring a considerable force if he sought to make contact. Menatonon also corroborated rumors Lane had heard about a sea just beyond the head of the [[Roanoke River]], apparently confirming English hopes of finding access to the Pacific Ocean. The chief's son Skiko described a place to the west called "Chaunis Temoatan" rich in a valuable metal, which Lane thought could be copper or perhaps even gold.{{Sfn|Horn|2010|pp= 94–97}}

Based on this information, Lane envisioned a detailed plan in which his forces would divide into two groups – one traveling north up the Chowan River, the other along the Atlantic coast{{mdash}}to resettle at Chesapeake Bay. However, he decided to defer this mission until the colony received fresh supplies, which Grenville had promised would arrive by Easter.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|pp= 77–78}}{{Sfn|Lane|1586|p= 322}} In the meantime, Lane [[ransom]]ed Menatonon and had Skiko sent back to Roanoke as a hostage. He proceeded with forty men for about {{convert|100|miles}} up the Roanoke River in search of Chaunis Temotan, but they found only deserted villages and warriors lying in ambush.{{Sfn|Horn|2010|pp= 97–98}} Lane had expected the Moratuc to provide provisions for him along his route, but Pemisapan had sent word that the English were hostile and villagers should withdraw from the river with their food.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|pp= 78–79}}

Lane and his party returned to the colony shortly after Easter, half-starved and empty-handed. During their absence, rumors had spread that they had been killed, and Pemisapan had been preparing to withdraw the Secotan from Roanoke Island and leave the colony to starve. There was no sign of Grenville's resupply fleet, which had not yet even left England. According to Lane, Pemisapan was so surprised that Lane returned alive from the Roanoke River mission that he reconsidered his plans. Ensenore, an elder among Pemisapan's council, argued in favor of the English. Later, an envoy for Menatonon informed Lane that the Weapemeoc leader Okisko had pledged fealty to Queen Elizabeth and Sir Walter Raleigh. This shift in the balance of power in the region further deterred Pemisapan from following through on his plans against the colony. He instead ordered his people to sow crops and build [[fishing weir]]s for the settlers.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|pp= 80–82}}

The renewed accord between the English and the Secotan was short-lived. On April 20 Ensenore died, depriving the colony of its last advocate in Pemisapan's inner circle. Wanchese had risen to become a senior advisor, and his time among the English had convinced him that they were a threat. Pemisapan evacuated the Secotan from Roanoke, destroyed the fishing weirs, and ordered them not to sell food to the English. Left to their own devices, the English had no way to produce enough food to sustain the colony. Lane ordered his men to break up into small groups to forage and beg for food in the Outer Banks and the mainland.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|p= 82}}

Lane continued to keep Skiko as a hostage. Although Pemisapan met regularly with Skiko and believed him sympathetic to the anti-English cause, Skiko sought to honor his father's intention of maintaining relations with the colony. Skiko informed Lane that Pemisapan planned to organize a war council meeting on June 10 with various regional powers. With the copper the Secotan had gained from trading with the colony, Pemisapan was able to offer substantial inducements to other tribes to side with him in a final offensive against the English. Oksiko declined to get involved, although individual Weapemeocs were permitted to participate. The plan of attack was to ambush Lane and other key leaders as they slept at the colony, and then signal for a general attack on the rest. Based on this information, Lane sent disinformation to the Secotan indicating that an English fleet had arrived, to force Pemisapan's hand.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|pp= 83–84}}

Forced to accelerate his schedule by the possibility of English reinforcements, Pemisapan gathered as many allies as he could for a meeting on May 31 at Dasamongueponke. That evening, Lane attacked the warriors posted at Roanoke, hoping to prevent them from alerting the mainland the following morning. On June 1, Lane, his top officers, and twenty-five men visited Dasamongueponke under the pretense of discussing a Secotan attempt to free Skiko. Once they were admitted into the council, Lane gave the signal for his men to attack. Pemisapan was shot and fled into the woods, but Lane's men caught up to him and brought back his severed head.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|pp= 83–85}} The head was impaled outside the colony's fort.{{Sfn|Oberg|2008|p= 98}}

===Evacuation===
[[File:Boazio-Sir Francis Drakes West Indian Voyage.jpg|thumb|Map of Sir Francis Drake's 1585–86 voyage]]

In June, the colonists made contact with the fleet of Sir [[Francis Drake]], on his way back to England from successful campaigns in [[Battle of Santo Domingo (1586)|Santo Domingo]], [[Battle of Cartagena de Indias (1586)|Cartagena]], and [[Raid on St. Augustine|St. Augustine]].{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=70–71}} During these raids, Drake had acquired refugees, slaves, and hardware with the intent of delivering them to Raleigh's colony. Upon learning of the colony's misfortunes, Drake agreed to leave behind four months of supplies and one of his ships, the ''Francis''. However, a [[hurricane]] hit the Outer Banks, sweeping the ''Francis'' out to sea.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 134–137}}

After the storm, Lane persuaded his men to evacuate the colony, and Drake agreed to take them back to England. Manteo and an associate, Towaye, joined them. Three of Lane's colonists were left behind and never heard from again. Because the colony was abandoned, it is unclear what became of the slaves and refugees Drake had meant to place there. There is no record of them arriving in England with the fleet, and it is possible Drake left them on Roanoke with some of the goods he had previously set aside for Lane.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=74–75}} Drake's fleet, along with Lane's colonists, reached England in July&nbsp;1586.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=77}} Upon arrival, the colonists introduced [[tobacco]], [[maize]], and [[potato]]es to England.{{Sfn|Chandler|1909|p= 5}}

===Grenville's detachment===
A single supply ship, sent by Raleigh, arrived at Roanoke just days after Drake evacuated the colony. The crew could not find any trace of the colonists and left. Two weeks later, Grenville's relief fleet finally arrived with a year's worth of supplies and reinforcements of 400 men. Grenville conducted an extensive search and interrogated three natives, one of which finally related an account of the evacuation.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 140–145}} The fleet returned to England, leaving behind a small detachment of fifteen men both to maintain an English presence and to protect Raleigh's claim to Roanoke Island.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 150–151}}

According to the Croatan, this contingent was attacked by an alliance of mainland tribes shortly after Grenville's fleet left. Five of the English were away gathering oysters when two of the attackers, appearing unarmed, approached the encampment and asked to meet with two Englishmen peacefully. One of the Native Americans concealed a wooden sword, which he used to kill an Englishman. Another 28 attackers revealed themselves, but the other Englishman escaped to warn his unit. The natives attacked with flaming arrows, setting fire to the house where the English kept their food stores, and forcing the men to take up whatever arms were handy. A second Englishman was killed; the remaining nine retreated to the shore, and fled the island on their boat. They found their four compatriots returning from the creek, picked them up, and continued into Port Ferdinando. The thirteen survivors were never seen again.{{Sfn|Hakluyt|1889|pp= 364–365}}