Editing Richard III of England (section)

==Reign of Edward IV==
===Estates and titles===
Richard was granted the Dukedom of Gloucester on 1 November 1461,{{sfnp|Ross|1981|p=6}} and on 12 August the next year was awarded large estates in [[northern England]], including the lordships of [[Richmond, Yorkshire|Richmond]] in Yorkshire, and [[Pembroke, Pembrokeshire|Pembroke]] in Wales. He gained the forfeited lands of the Lancastrian [[John de Vere, 12th Earl of Oxford]], in [[East Anglia]]. In 1462, on his birthday, he was made Constable of [[Gloucester Castle|Gloucester]] and [[Corfe Castle]]s and Admiral of England, Ireland and Aquitaine{{sfnp|Ross|1981|p=9}} and appointed Governor of the North, becoming the richest and most powerful noble in England. On 17 October 1469, he was made [[Constable of England]]. In November, he replaced [[William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings]], as Chief Justice of North Wales. The following year, he was appointed Chief Steward and Chamberlain of Wales.{{sfnp|Ross|1974|p=136}} On 18 May 1471, Richard was named Great Chamberlain and [[Lord High Admiral of England]]. Other positions followed: [[High Sheriff of Cumberland]] for life, Lieutenant of the North and Commander-in-Chief against the Scots and hereditary Warden of the West March.{{sfnp|Hicks|2001|p=74}} Two months later, on 14 July, he gained the Lordships of the strongholds [[Sheriff Hutton]] and Middleham in Yorkshire and [[Penrith, Cumbria|Penrith]] in Cumberland, which had belonged to Warwick the Kingmaker.{{sfnp|Hicks|2001|p=82}} It is possible that the grant of Middleham seconded Richard's personal wishes.{{refn|Says Kendall, "Richard had won his way back to Middleham Castle". However, any personal attachment he may have felt to Middleham was likely mitigated in his adulthood, as surviving records demonstrate he spent less time there than at [[Barnard Castle]] and [[Pontefract Castle|Pontefract]]." "No great magnate or royal duke in the fifteenth century had a 'home' in the twentieth-century sense of the word. Richard of Gloucester formed no more of a personal attachment to Middleham than he did to Barnard Castle or Pontefract, at both of which surviving records suggest he spent more time."{{sfnp|Kendall|1956|p=125}}|group=note}}

===Exile and return===
During the latter part of Edward IV's reign, Richard demonstrated his loyalty to the king,{{sfnp|Hicks|2009|p=75}} in contrast to their brother George who had allied himself with the Earl of Warwick when the latter rebelled towards the end of the 1460s.{{sfnp|Hicks|2004|ps=. "After 1466 Clarence was not the ally for which Edward IV had presumably hoped. He embroiled himself in a dangerous feud in the north midlands and associated himself politically with Warwick, who graduated from direction of Edward's affairs in the early 1460s to outright opposition."}} Following Warwick's 1470 rebellion, before which he had made peace with Margaret of Anjou and promised the restoration of Henry VI to the English throne, Richard, the Baron Hastings and [[Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers]], escaped capture at [[Doncaster]] by Warwick's brother, [[John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu]].{{sfnp|Ross|1974|p=152}} On 2 October they sailed from [[King's Lynn]] in two ships; Edward landed at [[Marsdiep]] and Richard at [[Zeeland]].{{sfnp|Ross|1981|p=19}} It was said that, having left England in such haste as to possess almost nothing, Edward was forced to pay their passage with his fur cloak; certainly, Richard borrowed three pounds from Zeeland's town bailiff.{{sfnp|Lulofs|1974}} They were [[attainted]] by Warwick's only Parliament on 26 November.{{sfnp|Ross|1974|p=155}} They resided in [[Bruges]] with [[Louis de Gruuthuse|Louis de Gruthuse]], who had been the Burgundian Ambassador to Edward's court,{{sfnp|Ross|1974|p=153}} but it was not until [[Louis XI of France]] declared war on Burgundy that Charles, Duke of Burgundy, assisted their return,{{sfnp|Ross|1974|p=159}} providing, along with the [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic merchants]], 20,000 [[Pound sterling|pounds]], 36 ships and 1,200 men. They left [[Vlissingen|Flushing]] for England on 11 March 1471.{{sfnp|Ross|1974|p=160}} Warwick's arrest of local sympathisers prevented them from landing in Yorkist East Anglia and on 14 March, after being separated in a storm, their ships ran ashore at [[Holderness]].{{sfnp|Ross|1974|p=161}} The town of [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]] refused Edward entry. He gained entry to York by using the same claim as [[Henry of Bolingbroke]] had before deposing Richard II in 1399; that is, that he was merely reclaiming the Dukedom of York rather than the crown.{{sfnp|Ross|1974|p=163}}{{sfnp|Ross|1981|p=20}} It was in Edward's attempt to regain his throne that Richard began to demonstrate his skill as a military commander.{{sfnp|Hicks|2009|p=98}}

===1471 military campaign===
[[File:The East Gate, Exeter and the Visit of King Richard III, 1483.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|right|Imaginary depiction of the East Gate (since demolished) in [[Exeter]] and the Visit of King Richard III, painted in 1885]]

Once Edward had regained the support of his brother George, he mounted a swift and decisive campaign to regain the crown through combat;{{sfnp|Gillingham|1981|p=191}} it is believed that Richard was his principal lieutenant{{sfnp|Ross|1981|p=21}} as some of the king's earliest support came from members of Richard's [[affinity (law)|affinity]], including [[James Harrington (Yorkist knight)|Sir James Harrington]]{{sfnp|Horrox|1989|p=41}} and [[William Parr (died 1483)|Sir William Parr]], who brought 600 [[men-at-arms]] to them at Doncaster.{{sfnp|Ross|1974|p=164}} Richard may have led the vanguard at the [[Battle of Barnet]], in his first command, on 14 April 1471, where he outflanked the wing of [[Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter]],{{sfnp|Kinross|1979|p=89}} although the degree to which his command was fundamental may have been exaggerated.{{sfnp|Kendall|1956|pp=93–99}} That Richard's personal household sustained losses indicate he was in the thick of the fighting.{{sfnp|Ross|1981|p=22}} A contemporary source is clear about his holding the vanguard for Edward at Tewkesbury,{{sfnp|Gillingham|1981|p=206}} deployed against the Lancastrian vanguard under [[Edmund Beaufort, 4th Duke of Somerset]], on 4 May 1471,<ref>{{harvp|Ross|1981|p=22}}, citing 'The Arrivall'.</ref> and his role two days later, as Constable of England, sitting alongside [[John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk|John Howard]] as [[Earl Marshal]], in the trial and sentencing of leading Lancastrians captured after the battle.{{sfnp|Ross|1974|p=172}}

===1475 invasion of France===
At least in part resentful of King Louis XI's previous support of his Lancastrian opponents, and possibly in support of his brother-in-law Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, Edward went to parliament in October 1472 for funding a military campaign,{{sfnp|Ross|1974|p=206}} and eventually landed in [[Calais]] on 4 July 1475.{{sfnp|Ross|1974|p=223}} Richard's was the largest private contingent of his army.{{sfnp|Grant|1993|p=116}} Although well known to have publicly been against the eventual treaty signed with Louis XI at [[Treaty of Picquigny|Picquigny]] (and absent from the negotiations, in which one of his rank would have been expected to take a leading role),{{sfnp|Ross|1981|p=34}} he acted as Edward's witness when the king instructed his delegates to the French court,{{sfnp|Ross|1974|p=230}} and received 'some very fine presents' from Louis on a visit to the French king at [[Amiens]].{{sfnp|Ross|1974|p=233}} In refusing other gifts, which included 'pensions' in the guise of 'tribute', he was joined only by [[Cardinal Bourchier]].{{sfnp|Hampton|1975|p=10}} He supposedly disapproved of Edward's policy of personally benefiting—politically and financially—from a campaign paid for out of a parliamentary grant, and hence out of public funds.{{sfnp|Ross|1981|p=34}} Any military prowess was therefore not to be revealed further until the last years of Edward's reign.{{sfnp|Horrox|2013}}

===The North, and the Council in the North===
Richard was the dominant magnate in the north of England until Edward IV's death.{{sfnp|Hicks|2009|p=57}} There, and especially in the city of [[York]], he was highly regarded;{{sfnp|Kendall|1956|pp=132–133, 154}} although it has been questioned whether this view was reciprocated by Richard.{{refn| Hanham has raised "the charge of hypocrisy",{{sfnp|Hanham|1975|p=64}} suggesting "that Richard would 'grin' at the city", and questioning whether he was either as popular or as devoted to the region as sometimes thought.{{sfnp|Hanham|1975|p=64}}|group=note}} Edward IV delegated significant authority to Richard in the region. Kendall and later historians have suggested that this was with the intention of making Richard the ''Lord of the North'';{{sfnp|Kendall|1956|p=156}} Peter Booth, however, has argued that "instead of allowing his brother Richard ''[[carte blanche]]'', [Edward] restricted his influence by using his own agent, Sir William Parr."{{sfnp|Booth|1997}} Following Richard's accession to the throne, he first established the [[Council of the North]] and made his nephew [[John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln]], president and formally institutionalised this body as an offshoot of the royal Council; all its letters and judgements were issued on behalf of the king and in his name.{{sfnp|Ross|1981|p=182}} The council had a budget of 2,000 [[Mark (currency)#England and Scotland|marks]] per annum and had issued "Regulations" by July of that year: councillors to act impartially, declare vested interests and to meet at least every three months. Its main focus of operations was Yorkshire and the north-east and its responsibilities included land disputes, keeping of the king's peace and punishing lawbreakers.{{sfnp|Ross|1981|p=183}}

===War with Scotland===
Richard's increasing role in the north from the mid-1470s to some extent explains his withdrawal from the royal court. He had been [[Lord Warden of the Marches#Warden of the Western March|Warden of the West March]] on the Scottish border since 10 September 1470,{{sfnp|Scofield|2016|p=534}} and again from May 1471; he used Penrith as a base while 'taking effectual measures' against the Scots, and 'enjoyed the revenues of the estates' of the Forest of Cumberland while doing so.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1890|p=238}} It was at the same time that the Duke of Gloucester was appointed High Sheriff of Cumberland for five consecutive years, being described as 'of Penrith Castle' in 1478.{{sfnp|Lysons|Lysons|1816|loc="Parishes: Newton-Regny – Ponsonby", pp. 142–150}}

By 1480, war with Scotland was looming; on 12 May that year, he was appointed Lieutenant-General of the North (a position created for the occasion) as fears of a Scottish invasion grew. [[Louis XI]] of France had attempted to negotiate a military alliance with Scotland (in the tradition of the "[[Auld Alliance]]"), with the aim of attacking England, according to a contemporary French chronicler.{{sfnp|Ross|1974|p=278|ps=, citing Phillipe de Commynes}} Richard had the authority to summon the Border Levies and issue Commissions of Array to repel the Border raids. Together with the Earl of Northumberland, he launched counter-raids, and when the king and council formally declared war in November 1480, he was granted 10,000 pounds for wages.

The king failed to arrive to lead the English army and the result was intermittent skirmishing until early 1482. Richard witnessed the treaty with [[Alexander, Duke of Albany]], brother of King [[James III of Scotland]].{{sfnp|Ross|1974|p=9}} Northumberland, Stanley, Dorset, Sir Edward Woodville, and Richard with approximately 20,000 men took the town of Berwick as part of the [[English invasion of Scotland (1482)|English invasion of Scotland]]. The castle held out until 24 August 1482, when Richard [[English invasion of Scotland (1482)|recaptured Berwick-upon-Tweed]] from the [[Kingdom of Scotland]]. Although it is debatable whether the English victory was due more to internal Scottish divisions rather than any outstanding military prowess by Richard,{{sfnp|Ross|1981|loc=p. 143, n. 53|ps=. However, Ross cites a letter from Edward IV in May 1480, the letter of appointment to his position as Lieutenant-General referred to his "proven capacity in the arts of war".}} it was the last time that the [[Royal Burgh]] of Berwick changed hands between the two realms.{{sfnp|Ross|1981|pp=44–47}}