Editing Quercus velutina (section)

==Ecology==

=== Associated plant species ===
Common tree associates of black oak are white oak (''[[Quercus alba]]''), northern red oak (''[[Quercus rubra]]''), pignut hickory (''[[Carya glabra]]''), [[mockernut hickory]] (''C.&nbsp;tomentosa''), [[bitternut hickory]] (''C.&nbsp;cordiformis''), and [[shagbark hickory]] (''C.&nbsp;ovata''); American elm (''[[Ulmus americana]]'') and [[slippery elm]] (''U.&nbsp;rubra''); white ash (''[[Fraxinus americana]]''); black walnut (''[[Juglans nigra]]'') and [[butternut tree|butternut]] (''J.&nbsp;cinerea''); scarlet oak (''[[Quercus coccinea]]''), [[southern red oak]] (''Q.&nbsp;falcata''), and [[chinkapin oak]] (''Q.&nbsp;muehlenbergii''); red maple (''[[Acer rubrum]]'') and [[sugar maple]] (''A.&nbsp;saccharum''); black cherry (''[[Prunus serotina]]''); and blackgum (''[[Nyssa sylvatica]]'').{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

Common small tree associates of black oak include flowering dogwood (''[[Cornus florida]]''), sourwood (''[[Oxydendrum arboreum]]''), sassafras (''[[Sassafras albidum]]''), eastern hophornbeam (''[[Ostrya virginiana]]''), redbud (''[[Cercis canadensis]]''), pawpaw (''[[Asimina triloba]]''), downy serviceberry (''[[Amelanchier arborea]]''), and American bladdernut (''[[Staphylea trifolia]]''). Common shrubs include ''[[Vaccinium]]'' spp., mountain-laurel (''[[Kalmia latifolia]]''), witch-hazel (''[[Hamamelis virginiana]]''), beaked hazel (''[[Corylus cornuta]]''), spicebush (''[[Lindera benzoin]]''), [[sumac]] (''Rhus'' spp.), and ''[[Viburnum]]'' spp. The most common vines are greenbrier (''[[Smilax]]'' spp.), grape (''[[Vitis]]'' spp.), poison-ivy (''[[Toxicodendron radicans]]''), and Virginia creeper (''[[Parthenocissus quinquefolia]]'').{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

Black oak is often a predominant species in the canopy of an [[oak–heath forest]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090115181617/http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural_heritage/ncTIIIe.shtml ''The Natural Communities of Virginia Classification of Ecological Community Groups'']. (Version 2.3), Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, 2010</ref><ref>Schafale, M. P. and Weakley, A. S. (1990). ''Classification of the natural communities of North Carolina: third approximation''. North Carolina Natural Heritage Program, North Carolina Division of Parks and Recreation.</ref>

=== Seed production and dissemination ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2020}}
In forest stands, black oak begins to produce seeds at about age 20 and reaches optimum production at 40 to 75 years. It is a consistent seed producer with good crops of acorns every 2 to 3 years. In Missouri, the average number of mature acorns per tree was generally higher than for other oaks over a 5-year period, but the number of acorns differed greatly from year to year and from tree to tree within the same stand.

The number of seeds that become available for regenerating black oak may be low even in good seed years. Insects, squirrels, deer, turkey, small rodents, and birds consume many [[acorn]]s. They can eat or damage a high percentage of the acorn crop in most years and essentially all of it in poor seed years.

Black oak acorns from a single tree are dispersed over a limited area by squirrels, mice, and gravity. The blue jay may disperse over longer distances.

=== Response to competition ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2020}}
Black oak is classed as intermediate in tolerance to shade. It is less tolerant than many of its associates such as white and chestnut oaks, hickories, beech (''[[Fagus grandifolia]]''), maples, elm, and blackgum. However, it is more tolerant than yellow-poplar (''Liriodendron tulipifera''), black cherry, and shortleaf pine (''[[Pinus echinata]]''). It is about the same as northern red oak and scarlet oak. Seedlings usually die within a few years after being established under fully stocked over stories. Most black oak sprouts under mature stands develop crooked stems and flat-topped or misshapen crowns. After the over story is removed, only the large stems are capable of competing successfully. Seedlings are soon overtopped. The few that survive usually remain in the intermediate crown class.

Even-aged silvicultural systems satisfy the reproduction and growth requirements of black oak better than the all-aged or uneven-aged selection system. Under the selection system, black oak is unable to reproduce because of inadequate light. Stands containing black oak that are managed under the selection system will gradually be dominated by more shade-tolerant species.

Dormant buds are numerous on the boles of black oak trees. These buds may be stimulated to sprout and produce branches by mechanical pruning or by exposure to greatly increased light, as by thinning heavily or creating openings in the stand. Dominant trees are less likely to produce epicormic branches than those in the lower crown class.

=== Damaging agents ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2020}}
Wildfires seriously damage black oak trees by killing the [[cambium]] at the base of the trees. This creates an entry point for decay fungi. The result is loss of volume because of heart rot. Trees up to pole size are easily killed by fire and severe fires may even kill saw timber. Many of the killed trees sprout and form a new stand. However, the economic loss may be large unless at least some of it can be salvaged.

Oak wilt (''[[Bretziella fagacearum]]'') is a potentially serious vascular disease of black oak that is widespread throughout the eastern United States. Trees die within a few weeks after the symptoms first appear. Usually scattered individuals or small groups of trees are killed, but areas several hectares in size may be affected. The disease is spread from tree to tree through root grafts and over larger distances by sap-feeding beetles ([[Nitidulidae]]) and the small oak bark beetle.

Shoestring root rot (''[[Armillaria mellea]]'') attacks black oak and may kill trees weakened by fire, lightning, drought, insects, or other diseases. A root rot, ''[[Phytophthora cinnamomi]]'', may kill seedlings in the nursery. Cankers caused by ''[[Strumella (moth)|Strumella]]'' and ''[[Nectria]]'' species damage the holes of black oak but seldom kill trees. Foliage diseases that attack black oak are the same as those that typically attack species in the red oak group and include anthracnose (''[[Gnomonia quercina]]''), leaf blister (''[[Taphrina]]'' spp.), powdery mildews (''[[Phyllactinia corylea]]'' and ''[[Microsphaera alni]]''), oak-pine rusts (''[[Cronartium]]'' spp.), and leaf spots (''[[Actinopelte dryina]]'').

Tunneling insects that attack the boles of black oak and cause serious lumber degrade include the carpenter worm (''[[Prionoxystus robiniae]]''), red oak borer (''[[Enaphalodes rufulus]]''), the twolined chestnut borer (''[[Agrilus bilineatus]]''), the oak timber worm (''[[Arrenodes minutus]]''), and the Columbian timber beetle (''[[Corthylus columbianus]]'').

The gypsy moth (''[[Lymantria dispar]]'') feeds on foliage and is potentially the most destructive insect. Although black oaks withstood a single defoliation, two or three defoliations in successive years kill many trees. Other defoliators that attack black oak and may occasionally be epidemic are the variable oak leaf caterpillar (''[[Heterocampa manteo]]''), the orange striped oakworm (''[[Anisota senatoria]]''), and the brown tail moth (''[[Euproctis chrysorrhoea]]'').

The nut weevils (''[[Curculio]]'' spp.), gall-forming cynipids (''[[Callirhytis]]'' spp.), filbertworm (''[[Melissopus latiferreanus]]''), and acorn moth (''[[Valentinia glandulella]]'') damage black oak acorns.