Editing Punic Wars (section)

==Opposing forces==
===Armies===
{{main|Roman army of the mid-Republic|Military of Carthage}}
[[File:Altar Domitius Ahenobarbus Louvre n3 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=A monochrome relief stele depicting two figures dressed as Roman legionaries|{{center|Detail from the second century&nbsp;BC [[Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus|Ahenobarbus relief]] showing two Roman foot-soldiers}}]]
Male Roman citizens who met a property requirement were liable for military service. Most were eligible and would serve as infantry, with a [[equites|better-off minority]] providing a cavalry component.{{efn|Those who did not meet the property requirement could be required to serve in the navy. At times of national emergency the property requirement might be waived and these poorer citizens conscripted into the army.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=22}}|group=note}} Traditionally, when at war the Romans would raise two [[Roman legion|legions]], each of 4,200 infantry{{#tag:ref|This could be increased to 5,000 in some circumstances,{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=23}} or, rarely, even more.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=287}}|group=note}} and 300 cavalry. Approximately 1,200 members of the infantry{{snd}}poorer or younger men unable to afford the armour and equipment of a standard [[legionary]]{{snd}}served as [[javelin]]-armed [[skirmisher]]s known as [[velites]]; they each carried several javelins, which would be thrown from a distance, as well as a short sword and a large circular shield.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=48}} The rest of the soldiers were equipped as [[heavy infantry]], with [[Body armor|body armour]], a large [[Scutum (shield)|shield]] and [[Gladius|short thrusting swords]]. They were divided into three ranks: the [[hastati|front rank]] also carried two javelins, while the [[principes|second]] and [[triari|third]] ranks had a [[Hasta (spear)|thrusting spear]] instead. Both legionary [[Maniple (military unit)|sub-units]] and individual legionaries fought in relatively open order. It was the long-standing Roman procedure to elect two men each year as senior [[Roman magistrate|magistrates]], known as [[Roman consul|consuls]], who in a time of war would each lead an army. An army was usually formed by combining a Roman legion with a similarly sized and equipped legion provided by their [[Socii|Italian allies]]; allied legions usually had a larger attached complement of cavalry than Roman ones.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=22–25}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=50}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2001|p=41}}

Carthaginian citizens only served in their army if there was a direct threat to the city of [[Carthage]].{{sfn|Lazenby|1998|p=9}}{{sfn|Scullard|2006|p=494}} When they did they fought as well-armoured heavy infantry armed with long thrusting spears, although they were notoriously ill-trained and ill-disciplined. In most circumstances Carthage recruited foreigners to make up its army.{{efn|reference=Roman and Greek sources refer to these foreign fighters derogatively as "mercenaries", but the modern historian Adrian Goldsworthy describes this as "a gross oversimplification". They served under a variety of arrangements; for example, some were the regular troops of allied cities or kingdoms seconded to Carthage as part of formal treaties, some were from allied states fighting under their own leaders, many were volunteers from areas under Carthaginian control who were not Carthaginian citizens. (Carthaginian citizenship was largely reserved for inhabitants of the city of Carthage.){{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=33}}|group=note}} Many were from North Africa and these are usually referred to as Libyans. The region provided several types of fighters, including: [[Close order formation|close-order]] infantry equipped with large shields, helmets, short swords and long thrusting [[spear]]s; javelin-armed [[light-infantry]] skirmishers; close-order [[shock cavalry]]{{#tag:ref|[[shock troops|"Shock" troops]] are those trained and used to close rapidly with an opponent, with the intention of breaking them before, or immediately upon, contact.{{sfn|Jones|1987|p=1}}|group=note}} (also known as heavy cavalry) carrying spears; and [[light cavalry]], skirmishers who threw javelins from a distance and avoided close combat; the latter were usually [[Numidian]]s.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=31–34}}{{sfn|Koon|2015|pp=79–87}} The close-order African infantry and the citizen-militia both fought in a tightly-packed formation known as a [[phalanx]].{{sfn|Koon|2015|p=93}} On occasion some of the infantry would wear captured Roman armour, especially among the troops of the Carthaginian general [[Hannibal]].{{sfn|Rawlings|2015|p=305}} In addition both [[Iberians|Iberia]] and [[Gaul]] provided many experienced infantry and cavalry. The infantry from these areas were unarmoured troops who would charge ferociously, but had a reputation for breaking off if a combat was protracted.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=32–34}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=9}} The Gallic cavalry, and possibly some of the Iberians, wore armour and fought as close-order troops; most or all of the mounted Iberians were light cavalry.{{sfn|Carey|2007|p=13}} [[Balearic slinger|Slingers]] were frequently recruited from the Balearic Islands.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=32}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=8}} The Carthaginians also employed [[war elephant]]s; North Africa had indigenous [[African forest elephant]]s at the time.{{#tag:ref|These elephants were typically about {{convert|2.5|m|ftin|abbr=on}} high at the shoulder and should not be confused with the larger [[African bush elephant]].{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=240}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=9}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=27}}

Garrison duty and land [[blockade]]s were the most common operations.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=82, 311, 313–314}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=237}} When armies were campaigning, surprise attacks, [[ambush]]es and [[Ruse de guerre|stratagems]] were common.{{sfn|Koon|2015|p=93}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=55}} More [[Pitched battle|formal battles]] were usually preceded by the two armies camping {{convert|2-12|km|mi|abbr=off|spell=in|sigfig=1}} apart for days or weeks; sometimes both forming up in battle order each day. If either commander felt at a disadvantage, he might march off without engaging; in such circumstances it was difficult to force a battle.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=56}}{{sfn|Sabin|1996|p=64}} Forming up in battle order was a complicated and premeditated affair, which took several hours. Infantry were usually positioned in the centre of the battle line, with light-infantry skirmishers to their front and cavalry on each flank.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=57}} Many battles were decided when one side's infantry force was [[Flanking maneuver|attacked in the flank or rear]] and it was partially or wholly [[Envelopment|enveloped]].{{sfn|Koon|2015|p=93}}{{sfn|Sabin|1996|p=66}}

===Navies===
[[File:Corvus.svg|thumb|left|alt=A diagram showing the location and usage of a corvus on a Roman galley.|{{center|The ''[[corvus (weapon)|corvus]]'', the Roman [[Naval boarding|ship boarding]] device}}]]
[[Quinqueremes]] were large and powerful-for-their-time warships{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=98}} which provided the main components of the Roman and Carthaginian fleets throughout the Punic Wars.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=27–28}} So ubiquitous was the type that Polybius uses it as a shorthand for "warship" in general.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=104}} A quinquereme carried a crew of 300: 280 oarsmen and 20 deck crew and officers.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=100}} It would also normally carry a complement of 40 marines;{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=435}} if battle was thought to be imminent this would be increased to as many as 120.{{sfn|Casson|1995|p=121}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=102–103}}

In 260{{spaces}}BC the Romans set out to construct a [[Roman navy|fleet]] and used a shipwrecked Carthaginian quinquereme as a blueprint for their own.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=97, 99–100}}{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=436 n. 6}} The Romans and their allies were unaccustomed to building quinqueremes and their early efforts were heavier than the Carthaginian vessels; thus they were slower and less manoeuvrable.{{sfn|Murray|2011|p=69}} Getting the oarsmen to row as a unit, let alone to execute more complex battle manoeuvres, required long and arduous training.{{sfn|Casson|1995|pp=278–280}}{{sfn|de Souza|2008|p=359}} As a result, the Romans were initially at a disadvantage against the more experienced Carthaginians. To counter this, the Romans introduced the [[corvus (weapon)|corvus]], a bridge {{convert|1.2|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=off}} wide and {{convert|11|m|ft|abbr=off}} long, with a heavy spike on the underside, designed to pierce and anchor into an enemy ship's deck.{{sfn|Casson|1995|p=121}} This allowed Roman legionaries acting as marines to [[Naval boarding|board enemy ships]] and capture them, rather than employing the previously [[Naval tactics in the Age of Galleys|more common tactic]] of [[ramming]].{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=178}}

All warships were equipped with rams, a triple set of {{convert|60|cm|ft|sigfig=1|adj=mid|-wide}} bronze blades weighing up to {{convert|270|kg|lb|sigfig=2}} positioned at the waterline. In the century prior to the Punic Wars, boarding had become increasingly common and ramming had declined, as the [[Hellenistic-era warships|larger and heavier vessels]] adopted in this period increasingly lacked the speed and manoeuvrability necessary to ram effectively, while their sturdier construction reduced a ram's effect on them even in case of a successful attack. The Roman adaptation of the corvus was a continuation of this trend and compensated for their initial disadvantage in ship-manoeuvring skills. The added weight in the prow compromised both the ship's manoeuvrability and its seaworthiness, and in rough sea conditions the corvus became useless; part way through the First Punic War the Romans ceased using it.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=178}}{{sfn|Wallinga|1956|pp=77–90}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=100–101, 103}}