Editing Psychology (section)

=== Beginning of experimental psychology ===
[[File:James McKeen Cattell.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|[[James McKeen Cattell]], the first psychologist in the [[United States]]]]
[[File:Wundt-research-group.jpg|thumb|[[Wilhelm Wundt]] (seated), a German psychologist, with colleagues in his psychological laboratory, the first of its kind, {{Circa|1880}}]]
[[File:One of Pavlov's dogs.jpg|thumb|One of the dogs used in Russian psychologist [[Ivan Pavlov]]'s experiment with a surgically implanted [[cannula]] to measure [[saliva]], [[taxidermy|preserved]] in the Pavlov Museum in [[Ryazan]], Russia]]
Philosopher [[John Stuart Mill]] believed that the human mind was open to scientific investigation, even if the science is in some ways inexact.<ref name="Henley">{{cite book |author=Henley TB |year=2019 |title=Hergenhahn's ''An introduction to the history of psychology'' |edition=8th |location=Boston |publisher=Cengage |pages=143–145 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0g9EDwAAQBAJ |access-date=2022-03-04 |isbn=978-1-337-56415-1 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730080359/https://books.google.com/books?id=0g9EDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Mill proposed a "mental [[chemistry]]" in which elementary thoughts could combine into ideas of greater complexity.<ref name="Henley"/> [[Gustav Fechner]] began conducting [[psychophysics]] research in [[Leipzig]] in the 1830s. He articulated the principle that human perception of a stimulus varies [[logarithmically]] according to its intensity.{{r|Leahey 2001|p=61|q=}} The principle became known as the [[Weber–Fechner law]]. Fechner's 1860 ''Elements of Psychophysics'' challenged Kant's negative view with regard to conducting quantitative research on the mind.<ref>Fechner, G. T. (1860). Elemente der Psychophysik. Breitkopf u. Härtel. (Elements of Psychophysics)</ref><ref name=Horst /> Fechner's achievement was to show that "mental processes could not only be given numerical magnitudes, but also that these could be measured by experimental methods."<ref name=Horst/> In Heidelberg, [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] conducted parallel research on sensory perception, and trained physiologist [[Wilhelm Wundt]]. Wundt, in turn, came to Leipzig University, where he established the psychological laboratory that brought experimental psychology to the world. Wundt focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components, motivated in part by an analogy to recent advances in chemistry, and its successful investigation of the elements and structure of materials.<ref name="WundtStanford">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2006). [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wilhelm-wundt/ "Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808003159/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wilhelm-wundt/ |date=8 August 2019 }}.</ref> [[Paul Flechsig]] and [[Emil Kraepelin]] soon created another influential laboratory at Leipzig, a psychology-related lab, that focused more on experimental psychiatry.<ref name=Horst />

[[James McKeen Cattell]], a professor of psychology at the [[University of Pennsylvania]] and [[Columbia University]] and the co-founder of ''[[Psychological Review]]'', was the first professor of psychology in the [[United States]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-10-22 |title=An Education in Psychology: James McKeen Cattell's Journal and Letters from Germany and England, 1880–1888 |url=https://www.archives.gov/nhprc/projects/catalog/james-mckeen-cattell#:~:text=Publishing%20Projects%20Catalog-,An%20Education%20in%20Psychology:%20James%20McKeen%20Cattell's%20Journal%20and%20Letters,Germany%20and%20England,%201880%E2%80%931888&text=James%20McKeen%20Cattell.,Courtesy%20Lafayette%20College%20Archives.&text=James%20McKeen%20Cattell%20(1860%20%E2%80%931944,of%20the%20late%2019th%20century. |access-date=2025-01-10 |website=National Archives |language=en}}</ref>

The German psychologist [[Hermann Ebbinghaus]], a researcher at the [[University of Berlin]], was a 19th-century contributor to the field. He pioneered the experimental study of memory and developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting.<ref>Wozniak, R.H. (1999). Introduction to memory: Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/1913). [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ebbinghaus/wozniak.htm Classics in the history of psychology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606085744/http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ebbinghaus/wozniak.htm |date=6 June 2019 }}</ref> In the early 20th century, [[Wolfgang Kohler]], [[Max Wertheimer]], and [[Kurt Koffka]] co-founded the school of [[Gestalt psychology]] of [[Fritz Perls]]. The approach of Gestalt psychology is based upon the idea that individuals experience things as unified wholes. Rather than [[Reductionism|reducing]] thoughts and behavior into smaller component elements, as in structuralism, the Gestaltists maintain that whole of experience is important, "and is something else than the sum of its parts, because summing is a meaningless procedure, whereas the whole-part relationship is meaningful."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Koffka |first=K. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.7888 |title=Principles of Gestalt Psychology |date=1935 |publisher=Harcourt, Brace |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.7888/page/n191 176] |access-date=13 October 2019}}</ref>

Psychologists in Germany, Denmark, Austria, England, and the United States soon followed Wundt in setting up laboratories.<ref name=BenjaminBaker /> [[G. Stanley Hall]], an American who studied with Wundt, founded a psychology lab that became internationally influential. The lab was located at [[Johns Hopkins University]]. Hall, in turn, trained [[Yūjirō Motora|Yujiro Motora]], who brought experimental psychology, emphasizing psychophysics, to the [[Imperial University of Tokyo]].<ref name=Takasuna>Miki Takasuna, "Japan", in Baker (ed.), ''Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology'' (2012).</ref> Wundt's assistant, [[Hugo Münsterberg]], taught psychology at Harvard to students such as [[Narendra Nath Sen Gupta]]—who, in 1905, founded a psychology department and laboratory at the [[University of Calcutta]].<ref name=Paranjpe /> Wundt's students [[Walter Dill Scott]], [[Lightner Witmer]], and [[James McKeen Cattell]] worked on developing tests of mental ability. Cattell, who also studied with [[Eugenics|eugenicist]] [[Francis Galton]], went on to found the [[Psychological Corporation]]. Witmer focused on the mental testing of children; Scott, on employee selection.{{r|Leahey 2001|p=60|q=}}

Another student of Wundt, the Englishman [[Edward Titchener]], created the psychology program at [[Cornell University]] and advanced "[[Structuralism (psychology)|structuralist]]" psychology. The idea behind structuralism was to analyze and classify different aspects of the mind, primarily through the method of [[introspection]].<ref name=Goodwin /> William James, [[John Dewey]], and [[Harvey Carr]] advanced the idea of [[Functional psychology|functionalism]], an expansive approach to psychology that underlined the Darwinian idea of a behavior's usefulness to the individual. In 1890, James wrote an influential book, ''[[The Principles of Psychology]]'', which expanded on the structuralism. He memorably described "[[Stream of consciousness (psychology)|stream of consciousness]]." James's ideas interested many American students in the emerging discipline.{{r|n1=Goodwin|n2=James 1890|n3=Leahey 2001|pp3=178-82}} Dewey integrated psychology with societal concerns, most notably by promoting [[progressive education]], inculcating moral values in children, and assimilating immigrants.{{r|Leahey 2001|pp=196-200|q=}}

A different strain of experimentalism, with a greater connection to physiology, emerged in South America, under the leadership of Horacio G. Piñero at the [[University of Buenos Aires]].<ref>Cecilia Taiana, "Transatlantic Migration of the Disciplines of Mind: Examination of the Reception of Wundt's and Freud's Theories in Argentina", in Brock (ed.), ''Internationalizing the History of Psychology'' (2006).</ref> In Russia, too, researchers placed greater emphasis on the biological basis for psychology, beginning with [[Ivan Sechenov]]'s 1873 essay, "Who Is to Develop Psychology and How?" Sechenov advanced the idea of brain [[reflexes]] and aggressively promoted a [[determinism|deterministic]] view of human behavior.<ref name=SirotkinaSmith>Irina Sirotkina and Roger Smith, "Russian Federation", in Baker (ed.), ''Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology'' (2012).</ref> The Russian-Soviet [[physiologist]] [[Ivan Pavlov]] discovered in dogs a learning process that was later termed "[[classical conditioning]]" and applied the process to human beings.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Windholz |first=G. |year=1997 |title=Ivan P. Pavlov: An overview of his life and psychological work |journal=American Psychologist |volume=52 |pages=941–946 |issue=9 |doi= 10.1037/0003-066X.52.9.941}}</ref>