Editing Probus (emperor) (section)

== As emperor ==
[[File:ProbusCoin.jpg|thumb|[[Antoninianus]] of Probus minted in 280. The reverse depicts the solar divinity [[Sol Invictus]] riding a [[quadriga]].Legend: PROBVS P. F. AVG.]]
[[Florian (emperor)|Florian]], the half-brother of Tacitus, also proclaimed himself emperor, and took control of Tacitus' army in Asia Minor, but was killed by his own soldiers after an indecisive campaign against Probus in the mountains of [[Cilicia]].<ref>Gibbon, p. 281</ref><ref name="auto1">Zosimus, 1:32</ref> In contrast to Florian, who ignored the wishes of the Senate, Probus referred his claim to Rome in a respectful dispatch. The Senate enthusiastically ratified his pretensions.<ref name="Gibbon, p. 283"/> Probus  next travelled west, defeating the Goths along the lower Danube in 277, and acquiring the title of ''Gothicus''.{{cn|date=June 2024}} However, the Goths came to respect his ability and implored a treaty with the empire.<ref>Gibbon, p. 284</ref>

[[File:5299 - Brescia - S. Giulia - Ritratto di Marco Aurelio Probo - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto, 25 Giu 2011.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Gilded bronze head of Probus from [[Brescia]] in northern Italy.{{sfn|McCann|p=90 n. 34; "Bronze portraits also found in Brescia, which have been tentatively identifies as Claudius II (268-270) and Probus (276-282)."}}<ref>{{cite book |author=[[J. Paul Getty Museum]]|year=1990|title=Small Bronze Sculpture from the Ancient World|pages=309–310; [http://ancientrome.ru/art/artworken/img.htm?id=3981 Inv. No. 350], [http://ancientrome.ru/art/artworken/img.htm?id=3982 351], [http://ancientrome.ru/art/artworken/img.htm?id=3983 352], [http://ancientrome.ru/art/artworken/img.htm?id=3984 353]|publisher=Getty Publications |isbn=9780892361762 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DeZFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109}}</ref>]]
In 278, Probus campaigned successfully in [[Gaul]] against the [[Alemanni]] and [[Lugii|Longiones]]; both tribes had advanced through the [[Neckar]] valley and across the Rhine into Roman territory.<ref>Southern, pg. 129</ref> Meanwhile, his generals defeated the [[Franks]] and these operations were directed to clearing [[Gaul]] of Germanic invaders (Franks and [[Burgundians]]), allowing Probus to adopt the titles of ''Gothicus Maximus'' and ''Germanicus Maximus''.<ref name="roman-emperors.org"/> Reportedly, 400,000 barbarians were killed during Probus' campaign, and the entire nation of the [[Lugii]] were extirpated.<ref>Gibbon, p. 286</ref>

After the defeat of the Germanic invaders in Gaul, Probus crossed the [[Rhine]] to campaign successfully against the barbarians in their homeland, forcing them to pay homage. In the aftermath of the campaign, Probus repaired the ancient fortifications erected by [[Hadrian]] in the vulnerable space between the Rhine and [[Danube]], in the territory of [[Swabia]]. Probus advanced possibly as far as the Elbe, but ultimately decided against annexing all Germany to the Roman Empire and instead accepted the submission of nine major tribes, who provided recruits for his army. More significantly, Probus, by forcing from the vanquished tribes a tribute of manpower, established the precedent of settling barbarians within the empire as auxiliaries on a large scale. The provinces were depopulated by war, disease and the chaotic administration, heavy taxation, and extensive army recruitment, during the [[Crisis of the Third Century]], and the barbarian colonies, at least in the short term, helped to restore frontier defense and the practice of agriculture.<ref>Gibbon, pp. 286-288</ref>

The army discipline which [[Aurelian]] had repaired was cultivated and extended under Probus, who was however more shy in the practice of cruelty.<ref>Gibbon, p. 291</ref> One of his principles was never to allow the soldiers to be idle, and to employ them in time of peace on useful works, such as the planting of [[vineyard]]s in Gaul, Pannonia and other districts,{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=408}} in order to restart the economy in these devastated lands.<ref>"120-Interregnum," The History of Rome</ref>

In 279–280, Probus was, according to [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]], in [[Raetia]], [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]] and [[Lycia]], where he fought the [[Vandals]].<ref name="auto1"/> In the same years, Probus' generals defeated the [[Blemmyes]] in [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]]. Either then, or during his previous command in Egypt, he ordered the reconstruction of bridges and canals along the [[Nile]], where the production of grain for the Empire was centered.<ref>Historia Augusta, ''Vita Probi'', 9:3–4</ref><ref>Gibbon, Ibid.</ref>
[[File:Probus_sol.jpg|thumb|Coin of c. 280 AD depicting Probus and [[Sol Invictus]]. The inscription reads: IMP·C·PROBUS·INVIC·P·F·AUG ("Emperor Caesar Probus, Unconquered, Pious, Blessed")]]
In 280–281, Probus put down three usurpers, [[Julius Saturninus]], [[Proculus]] and [[Bonosus (emperor)|Bonosus]].<ref>Victor, 37:2</ref> The extent of these revolts is not clear, but there are clues that they were not just local problems (an inscription with the name of Probus erased has been found as far as Spain).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/probus.htm#N_17_|title=Roman Emperors - DIR probus|work=roman-emperors.org|date=8 August 2023 }}</ref> Following this, Probus then put down a revolt by an unnamed rebel in Britain with the assistance of a certain Victorinus, who was later made consul in 282.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The reign of the Emperor Probus|last=Crees|first=James|publisher=University of London Press|year=1911|pages=122}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Der Kaiser Marcus Aurelius Probus und seine Zeit|last=Kreucher|first=Gerald|publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag|year=2003|isbn=3515083820|location=Stuttgart|pages=[https://archive.org/details/derkaisermarcusa0000kreu/page/164 164]|url=https://archive.org/details/derkaisermarcusa0000kreu/page/164}}</ref> During the winter of 281, the emperor was in Rome, where he celebrated a [[roman triumph|triumph]].<ref name=":0" />
[[File:INC-2020-a Ауреус. Проб. Ок. 276—282 гг. (аверс).png|thumb|Gold [[aureus]] of Probus, marked: IMP C MAVR PROBVS P AVG.]]
[[File:Probus gold coin.jpg|thumb|Gold coin of Probus in military armour. Legend: IMP. PROBVS AVG.]]
Probus was eager to start his eastern campaign, delayed by the revolts in the west.<ref>Historia Augusta, ''Vita Probi'', 20:1</ref> He left Rome in 282, travelling first towards Sirmium, his birth city.

=== Assassination ===
Different accounts of Probus's death exist. According to [[Joannes Zonaras]], the commander of the [[Praetorian Guard]] [[Carus|Marcus Aurelius Carus]] had been proclaimed, more or less unwillingly, emperor by his troops.<ref>Zonaras, 12:29</ref>

Probus sent some troops against the new usurper, but when those troops changed sides and supported Carus, Probus' remaining soldiers assassinated him at [[Sirmium]] (September/October 282).<ref>Victor, 37:4</ref> According to other sources, however, Probus was killed by disgruntled soldiers, who rebelled against his orders to be employed for civic purposes, like draining marshes.<ref>Historia Augusta, ''Vita Probi'', 20:2-3</ref> Allegedly, the soldiers were provoked when they overheard him lamenting the necessity of a standing army.<ref name="Gibbon, p. 292"/> Carus was proclaimed emperor after Probus' death and avenged the murder of his predecessor.<ref>Historia Augusta, ''Vita Cari'', 6:1</ref>