Editing Pope Alexander VI (section)

== Career ==
=== Overview ===
Roderic de Borja's career in the Church began in 1445 at the age of 14, when he was appointed [[sacristan]] at the [[Valencia Cathedral|Cathedral of Valencia]] by his influential uncle, [[Pope Callixtus III|Alfons Cardinal de Borja]], who had been appointed a [[Cardinal (Catholic Church)|cardinal]] by [[Pope Eugene IV]] the previous year.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hollingsworth|first=Mary|title=The Borgias: history's most notorious dynasty|date=2014|isbn=978-1-78206-944-7|location=London|page=17|oclc=868380201}}</ref> In 1448, de Borja became canon at the cathedrals of Valencia, Barcelona, and Segorbe. His uncle, Cardinal de Borja, persuaded [[Pope Nicholas V]] to allow young de Borja to perform this role ''in absentia'' and receive the associated income, so that de Borja could travel to [[Rome]].<ref>Hollingsworth 2014, pp. 17–19</ref> While in Rome, Rodrigo Borgia (as his name was usually spelled in [[Italian language|Italian]]) studied under Gaspare da Verona, a humanist tutor. He then studied law at [[University of Bologna|Bologna]] where he graduated, not simply as [[Canon law|Doctor of Law]], but as "the most eminent and judicious jurisprudent."<ref name="deroo1">Monsignor Peter de Roo (1924), ''Material for a History of Pope Alexander VI, His Relatives and His Time'', (5 vols.), Bruges, Desclée, De Brouwer, volume 2, p. 29.  {{cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://attomelani.net/de_roo/volumeII_lowres.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426065604/http://attomelani.net/de_roo/volumeII_lowres.pdf |archive-date=26 April 2012 |access-date=22 December 2011}} [http://www.attomelani.net/?page+id=143 volumes 1–5]</ref>

The election of his uncle, Alfons Cardinal de Borja, as [[Pope Callixtus III]] in 1455 enabled Borgia's appointments to other positions in the Church. These [[Nepotism|nepotistic]] appointments were characteristic of the era. Each pope during this period found himself surrounded by the servants and retainers of his predecessors who often owed their loyalty to the family of the pontiff who had appointed them.<ref name="Burkle" />  In 1455, he inherited his uncle's post as bishop of Valencia, and Callixtus appointed him Dean of Santa Maria in Xàtiva. The following year, he was ordained [[deacon]] and created [[Lay cardinal|cardinal-deacon]] of [[San Nicola in Carcere]]. Rodrigo Borgia's appointment as cardinal only occurred after Callixtus III asked the cardinals in Rome to create three new positions in the [[College of Cardinals]], two for his nephews Rodrigo and Luis Juan de Milà, and one for the Prince Jaime of Portugal.<ref>Hollingsworth 2014, p. 36</ref>

In 1457, Callixtus III assigned the young Cardinal de Borja (or Borgia in Italian) to go to Ancona as a Papal legate to quell a revolt. Borgia was successful in his mission, and his uncle rewarded him with his appointment as [[Apostolic Chancery|vice-chancellor]] of the Holy Roman Church.<ref>Hollingsworth 2014, p. 43</ref> The position of [[Apostolic Chancery|vice-chancellor]] was both incredibly powerful and lucrative, and Borgia held this post for 35 years until his own election to the papacy in 1492. At the end of 1457, Rodrigo Cardinal Borgia's elder brother, Pedro Luis Borgia, fell ill, so Rodrigo temporarily filled Pedro Luis' position as [[captain-general]] of the papal army until he recovered.<ref>Hollingsworth 2014, p. 45</ref> In 1458, Cardinal Borgia's uncle and greatest benefactor, Pope Callixtus, died.

In the [[1458 papal conclave|papal election of 1458]], Rodrigo Borgia was too young to seek the papacy himself, so he sought to support a cardinal who would maintain him as vice-chancellor. Borgia was one of the deciding votes in the election of Cardinal Piccolomini as [[Pope Pius II]], and the new pope rewarded Borgia not only with maintaining the chancellorship but also with a lucrative abbey benefice and another titular church.<ref>Hollingsworth 2014, p. 55</ref> In 1460, Pope Pius rebuked Cardinal Borgia for attending a private party which Pius had heard turned into an orgy. Borgia apologized for the incident but denied that there had been an orgy. Pope Pius forgave him, and the true events of the evening remain unknown.<ref>Hollingsworth 2014, p. 60</ref> In 1462, Rodrigo Borgia had his first son, Pedro Luis, with an unknown mistress. He sent Pedro Luis to grow up in Spain.<ref>Hollingsworth 2014, p. 65</ref> The following year, Borgia acceded to Pope Pius's call for cardinals to help fund a new crusade. Before embarking to lead the crusade personally, Pope Pius II fell ill and died, so Borgia would need to ensure the election of yet another ally to the papacy to maintain his position as vice-chancellor.

On the first ballot, the [[1464 papal conclave|conclave of 1464]] elected Borgia's friend Pietro Barbo as [[Pope Paul II]]. Borgia was in high standing with the new pope and retained his positions, including that of vice-chancellor. Paul II reversed some of his predecessor's reforms that diminished the power of the chancellory. Following the election, Borgia fell ill of the plague but recovered. Borgia had two daughters, Isabella (*1467) and Girolama (*1469), with an unknown mistress. He openly acknowledged all three of his children.<ref>Hollingsworth 2014, p. 81</ref> Pope Paul II died suddenly in 1471.

While Borgia had acquired the reputation and wealth to mount a bid for the papacy in [[1471 papal conclave|this conclave]], there were only three non-Italians, making his election a near-impossibility. Consequently, Borgia continued his previous strategy of positioning himself as kingmaker. This time, Borgia gathered the votes to make Francesco della Rovere (the uncle of future Borgia rival [[Pope Julius II|Giuliano della Rovere]]) [[Pope Sixtus IV]]. Della Rovere's appeal was that he was a pious and brilliant [[Order of Friars Minor|Franciscan]] friar who lacked many political connections in Rome.<ref>Hollingsworth 2014, p. 82</ref> He seemed to be the perfect cardinal to reform the Church, and the perfect cardinal for Borgia to maintain his influence. Sixtus IV rewarded Borgia for his support by promoting him to cardinal-bishop and consecrating him as the [[Cardinal-Bishop of Albano]], requiring Borgia's ordination as a priest. Borgia also received a lucrative abbey from the pope and remained vice-chancellor.<ref>Hollingsworth 2014, p. 85</ref> At the end of the year, the pope appointed Borgia to be the papal legate for Spain to negotiate a peace treaty between [[Crown of Castile|Castile]] and [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]] and to solicit their support for another crusade. In 1472, Borgia was appointed to be the papal chamberlain until his departure to Spain. Borgia arrived in his native Aragon in the summer, reuniting with family and meeting with King Juan II and Prince Ferdinand. The pope gave Cardinal Borgia discretion over whether to give dispensation for [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand]]'s marriage to his second cousin [[Isabella I of Castile|Isabella of Castile]], and Borgia decided in favour of approving the marriage. The couple named Borgia to be the godfather of their first son in recognition of this decision.<ref>Hollingsworth 2014, p. 95</ref> The marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella was critical in the [[Habsburg Spain|unification of Castile and Aragon]] into Spain. Borgia also negotiated peace between Castile and Aragon and an end to the civil wars in the latter Kingdom, gaining the favour of the future King Ferdinand - who would go on to promote the interests of the Borgia family in Aragon.<ref>Hollingsworth 2014, p. 87</ref> Borgia returned to Rome the following year, narrowly surviving a storm that sank a nearby galley that was carrying 200 men of the Borgia household. 
[[File:Vanozza.jpg|thumb|[[Vannozza dei Cattanei]]]]
Back in Rome, Borgia began his affair with [[Vannozza dei Cattanei|Vannozza dei Cattenei]] which would yield four children: [[Cesare Borgia|Cesare]] in 1475, [[Giovanni Borgia, 2nd Duke of Gandía|Giovanni]] in 1474 or 1476, [[Lucrezia Borgia|Lucrezia]] in 1480, and [[Gioffre Borgia|Gioffre]] in 1482. In 1476, Pope Sixtus appointed Borgia to be the cardinal-bishop of Porto. In 1480, the pope legitimized Cesare as a favour to Cardinal Borgia, and in 1482, the pope began to appoint the seven-year-old to church positions, demonstrating Borgia's intention to use his influence to promote his children. Contemporaneously, Borgia continued to add to his list of benefices, becoming the wealthiest cardinal by 1483.<ref>Hollingsworth 2014, p. 100</ref> He also become [[Dean of the College of Cardinals]] in that year. In 1484, Pope Sixtus IV died, necessitating another election for Borgia to manipulate to his advantage.

Borgia was wealthy and powerful enough to mount a bid, but he faced competition from [[Pope Julius II|Giuliano della Rovere]], the late pope's nephew. Della Rovere's faction had the advantage of being incredibly large as Sixtus had appointed many of the cardinals who would participate in the election. Borgia's attempts to gather enough votes included bribery and leveraging his close ties to Naples and Aragon. However, many of the Spanish cardinals were absent from the conclave and della Rovere's faction had an overwhelming advantage. Della Rovere chose to promote Cardinal Cibo as his preferred candidate, and Cibo wrote to the Borgia faction wanting to strike a deal. Once again, Borgia played kingmaker and conceded to Cardinal Cibo who became [[Pope Innocent VIII]].<ref>Hollingsworth 2014, p. 106</ref> Again, Borgia retained his position of vice-chancellor, successfully holding this position over the course of five papacies and four elections.

In 1485, Pope Innocent VIII nominated Borgia to become the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville|Archbishop of Seville]], a position that [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|King Ferdinand II]] wanted for his own son. In response, Ferdinand angrily seized the Borgia estates in Aragon and imprisoned Borgia's son Pedro Luis. However, Borgia healed the relationship by turning down this appointment. Pope Innocent, at the urging of his close ally Giuliano della Rovere, decided to declare war against Naples, but Milan, Florence, and Aragon chose to support Naples over the pope. Borgia led the opposition within the College of Cardinals to this war, and King Ferdinand rewarded Borgia by making his son Pedro Luis the [[Duke of Gandía|Duke of Gandia]] and arranging a marriage between his cousin Maria Enriquez and the new duke. Now, the Borgia family was directly tied to the royal families of Spain and Naples. While Borgia gained the favour of Spain, he stood opposed to the pope and the della Rovere family. As a part of his war opposition, Borgia sought to obstruct an alliance negotiation between the papacy and France. These negotiations were unsuccessful and in July 1486, the pope capitulated and ended the war.<ref>Hollingsworth 2014, p. 111</ref> In 1488, Borgia's son Pedro Luis died, and Juan Borgia became the new duke of Gandia. In the following year, Borgia hosted the wedding ceremony between [[Orsino Orsini]] and [[Giulia Farnese]], and within a few months, Farnese had become Borgia's new mistress. She was 15, and he was 58.<ref>Hollingsworth 2014, p. 114</ref> Borgia continued to acquire new benefices with their large streams of income, including the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Majorca|bishopric of Majorca]] and Eger in Hungary. In 1492, Pope Innocent VIII died. Since Borgia was 61, this was likely his last chance to become pope.

=== Archbishop of Valencia ===
When his uncle Alonso de Borja ([[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Valencia in Spain|bishop of Valencia]]) was elected Pope Callixtus III,
he "inherited" the post of bishop of Valencia. Sixteen days before the death of [[Pope Innocent VIII]], he proposed Valencia as a [[Metropolitan bishop|metropolitan]] [[Episcopal see|see]] and became the first archbishop of Valencia. When Rodrigo Borgia was elected pope as Alexander VI following the death of Innocent VIII, his son Cesare Borgia "inherited" the post as second archbishop of Valencia. The third and the fourth archbishops of Valencia were [[Juan de Borja Lanzol de Romaní, el menor|Juan de Borja]] and [[Pedro Luis de Borja]], grandnephews of Alexander VI.<ref name="moroni">[[Gaetano Moroni]], ''Dizionario di Erudizione Storico-Ecclesiastica da S. Pietro sino ai nostri giorni'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=ObtDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA50 vol. 6, p. 50] {{in lang|it}}</ref>

=== Election to the papacy ===
{{Main|Papal conclave, 1492}}

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There was change in the constitution of the College of Cardinals during the course of the 15th century, especially under Sixtus IV and Innocent VIII. Of the 27 cardinals alive in the closing months of the reign of Innocent VIII no fewer than 10 were [[cardinal-nephew]]s, eight were crown nominees, four were Roman nobles and one other had been given the cardinalate in recompense for his family's service to the [[Holy See]]; only four were able career churchmen.<ref name="Burkle">{{cite web |url=http://www2.fiu.edu/~mirandas/election-alexandervi.htm |title=The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church – Papal elections – XV Century }}</ref>

On the death of [[Pope Innocent VIII]] on 25 July 1492, the three likely candidates for the [[Papacy]] were the 61-year-old Borgia,<ref name="Burkle" /> seen as an independent candidate, [[Ascanio Sforza]] for the Milanese, and [[Pope Julius II|Giuliano della Rovere]], seen as a pro-French candidate.
It was rumoured but not substantiated that Borgia succeeded in buying the largest number of votes and Sforza, in particular, was bribed with four mule-loads of silver.<ref>{{harvp|de Rossa|1989|p=144}}</ref> Mallett shows that Borgia was in the lead from the start and that the rumours of bribery began after the election with the distribution of benefices; Sforza and della Rovere were just as willing and able to bribe as anyone else.<ref>{{harvp|Mallett|1981|pp=123–126}}</ref> The benefices and offices granted to Sforza, moreover, would be worth considerably more than four mule-loads of silver. [[Johann Burchard]], the conclave's master of ceremonies and a leading figure of the papal household under several popes, recorded in his diary that the [[Papal conclave, 1492|1492 conclave]] was a particularly expensive campaign. Della Rovere was bankrolled to the cost of 200,000 gold [[ducat]]s by [[Charles VIII of France|King Charles VIII of France]], with another 100,000 supplied by the [[Republic of Genoa]].<ref name="Burchard">Johann Burchard, ''Diaries 1483–1492'' (translation: A.H. Matthew, London, 1910)</ref>

The leading candidates in the first ballot were [[Oliviero Carafa]] of Sforza's party with nine votes, and [[Giovanni Michiel]] and Jorge Costa, both of della Rovere's party with seven votes each. Borgia himself gathered seven votes. However, Borgia convinced Sforza to join with his camp through the promise of being appointed vice-chancellor as well as bribes that included benefices and perhaps four mule-loads of silver. With Sforza now canvassing for votes, Borgia's election was assured. Borgia was elected on 11 August 1492 and assumed the name of Alexander VI (due to confusion about the status of [[Pope Alexander V]], elected by the [[Council of Pisa]]). Many inhabitants of Rome were happy with their new pope because he was a generous and competent administrator who had served for decades as vice-chancellor.<ref>Hollingsworth 2014, p. 126</ref>

=== Early years in office ===

[[File:Påven Alexander VI blysigill Petrus Paulus 001.jpg|thumb| [[Papal bulla]] of Alexander VI]]

In contrast to the preceding pontificate, Pope Alexander VI adhered initially to strict administration of justice and orderly government. Before long, though, he began endowing his relatives at the Church's and at his neighbours' expense. [[Cesare Borgia]], his son, while a youth of seventeen and a student at [[Pisa]], was made [[Archbishop]] of [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Valencia in Spain|Valencia]], and [[Giovanni Borgia, 2nd Duke of Gandia|Giovanni Borgia]] inherited the Spanish Dukedom of [[Gandia]], the Borgias' ancestral home in Spain. For the Duke of Gandia and for [[Gioffre Borgia|Gioffre]], also known as Goffredo, the Pope proposed to carve fiefs out of the [[Papal States]] and the [[Kingdom of Naples]]. Among the fiefs destined for the duke of Gandia were [[Cerveteri]] and [[Anguillara Sabazia|Anguillara]], lately acquired by [[Virginio Orsini]], head of that powerful house. This policy brought Alexander into conflict with [[Ferdinand I of Naples]] as well as with Cardinal della Rovere, whose candidature for the papacy had been backed by Ferdinand. Della Rovere fortified himself in his [[bishop of Ostia|bishopric of Ostia]] at the [[Tiber]]'s mouth as Alexander formed a league against Naples (25 April 1493) and prepared for war.<ref name="Villari" />

Ferdinand allied himself with [[Republic of Florence|Florence]], [[Duchy of Milan|Milan]] and [[Republic of Venice|Venice]]. He also appealed to Spain for help, but Spain was eager to be on good terms with the papacy to obtain the title to the recently discovered [[New World]]. Alexander, in the bull ''[[Inter caetera]]'' on 4 May 1493, divided the title between Spain and Portugal along a demarcation line. This became the basis of the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kTneDFadcIC|title=International law in historical perspective. 10|first=Jan H.|last=Verzijl|date=26 September 1979|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=90-286-0158-9 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

=== French involvement ===
{{Main|Italian War of 1494–1498}}
{{More citations needed section|date=April 2014}}
[[File:Italy 1494 AD.png|thumb|Italy 1494]]

Pope Alexander VI made many alliances to secure his position. He sought help from [[Charles VIII of France]] (1483–1498), who was allied to [[Ludovico Sforza|Ludovico "il Moro" Sforza]] (the Moor, so-called because of his swarthy complexion), the ''de facto'' Duke of Milan, who needed French support to legitimise his rule. As King [[Ferdinand I of Naples]] was threatening to come to the aid of the rightful duke [[Gian Galeazzo Sforza]], the husband of his granddaughter [[Isabella of Aragon, Duchess of Milan|Isabella]], Alexander encouraged the French king in his plan for the conquest of Naples.

But Alexander, always ready to seize opportunities to aggrandize his family, then adopted a double policy. Through the intervention of the Spanish ambassador, he made peace with Naples in July 1493 and cemented the peace by a marriage between his son Gioffre and [[Sancha of Aragon|Doña Sancha]], another granddaughter of Ferdinand I.<ref name="Burchard" /> In order to dominate the [[College of Cardinals]] more completely, Alexander, in a move that created much scandal, created 12 new cardinals. Among the new cardinals was his own son Cesare, then only 18 years old. [[Pope Paul III|Alessandro Farnese]] (later Pope Paul III), the brother of one of the Pope's mistresses, [[Giulia Farnese]], was also among the newly created cardinals.

On 25 January 1494, Ferdinand I died and was succeeded by his son [[Alfonso II of Naples|Alfonso II]] (1494–1495).<ref name="Burchard" /> [[Charles VIII of France]] now advanced formal claims on the Kingdom of Naples. Alexander authorised him to pass through Rome, ostensibly on a [[crusade]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]], without mentioning Naples. But when the French invasion became a reality Pope Alexander VI became alarmed, recognised Alfonso II as king of Naples, and concluded an alliance with him in exchange for various fiefs for his sons (July 1494). A military response to the French threat was set in motion: a Neapolitan army was to advance through [[Romagna]] and attack Milan, while the fleet was to seize [[Genoa]]. Both expeditions were badly conducted and failed, and on 8 September Charles VIII crossed the [[Alps]] and joined Ludovico il Moro at Milan. The Papal States were in turmoil, and the powerful [[Colonna family|Colonna]] faction seized [[Ostia (district)|Ostia]] in the name of France. Charles VIII rapidly advanced southward, and after a short stay in Florence, set out for Rome (November 1494).

Alexander appealed to [[Ascanio Sforza]] and even to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Sultan]] [[Bayazid II]] for help. He tried to collect troops and put Rome in a state of defence, but his position was precarious. When the Orsini offered to admit the French to their castles, Alexander had no choice but to come to terms with Charles. On 31 December, Charles VIII entered Rome with his troops, the cardinals of the French faction, and Giuliano della Rovere. Alexander now feared that Charles might depose him for [[simony]], and that the king would summon a council to nominate a new pope. Alexander was able to win over the [[Guillaume Briçonnet (Cardinal)|bishop of Saint-Malo]], who had much influence over the king, by making him a cardinal. Alexander agreed to send Cesare as legate to Naples with the French army; to deliver [[Cem Sultan]], held as a hostage, to Charles VIII, and to give Charles [[Civitavecchia]] (16 January 1495). On 28 January Charles VIII departed for Naples with Cem and Cesare, but the latter slipped away to [[Spoleto]]. Neapolitan resistance collapsed, and Alfonso II fled and abdicated in favour of his son [[Ferdinand II of Naples|Ferdinand II]]. Ferdinand was abandoned by all and also had to escape, and the Kingdom of Naples was conquered with surprising ease.<ref name="CE1913"/>

=== French in retreat ===
{{More citations needed section|date=April 2014}}

A reaction against Charles VIII soon set in, for all the European powers were alarmed at his success. On 31 March 1495 the [[Holy League (1495)|Holy League]] was formed among the pope, the emperor, [[Venice]], Ludovico il Moro and [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand of Spain]].<ref>{{cite book |first=M. S. |last=Anderson |title=The Rise of Modern Diplomacy 1450–1919 |location=London |publisher=Longman |year=1993 |page=3 |isbn=0-582-21232-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JmzuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3 }}</ref> The League was ostensibly formed against the Turks, but in reality it was made to expel the French from Italy. Charles VIII had himself crowned King of [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]] on 12 May, but a few days later began his retreat northward. He met the League at [[Battle of Fornovo|Fornovo]] and cut his way through them and was back in France by November. Ferdinand II was reinstated at [[Naples]] soon afterwards, with Spanish help. The expedition, if it produced no material results, demonstrated the foolishness of the so-called "politics of equilibrium", the Medicean doctrine of preventing one of the Italian principates from overwhelming the rest and uniting them under its hegemony.

Charles VIII's belligerence in Italy had made it transparent that the "politics of equilibrium" did nothing but render the country unable to defend itself against a powerful invading force. Italy was shown to be very vulnerable to the predations of the powerful nation-states, France and Spain, that had forged themselves during the previous century. Alexander VI now followed the general tendency of all the princes of the day to crush the great feudatories and establish a centralized despotism. In this manner, he was able to take advantage of the defeat of the French in order to break the power of the Orsini. From that time on, Alexander was able to build himself an effective power base in the Papal States.

[[File:Castel Sant'Angelo bild.jpg|thumb|upright=1|[[Castel Sant'Angelo]] in Rome]]

[[Virginio Orsini]], who had been captured by the Spanish, died a prisoner at Naples, and the Pope confiscated his property. The rest of the Orsini clan still held out, defeating the papal troops sent against them under [[Guidobaldo da Montefeltro]], Duke of [[Urbino]] and [[Giovanni Borgia (1474)|Giovanni Borgia]], Duke of Gandia, at [[Soriano nel Cimino|Soriano]] (January 1497). Peace was made through Venetian mediation, the Orsini paying 50,000 ducats in exchange for their confiscated lands; the Duke of Urbino, whom they had captured, was left by the pope to pay his own ransom. The Orsini remained very powerful, and Pope Alexander VI could count on none but his 3,000 Spanish troops. His only success had been the capture of Ostia and the submission of the Francophile cardinals Colonna and [[Giovanni Battista Savelli|Savelli]].

Then occurred a major domestic tragedy for the house of Borgia. On 14 June, his son the [[Giovanni Borgia, 2nd Duke of Gandía|Duke of Gandia]], who was lately created Duke of [[Benevento]] and had a questionable lifestyle, disappeared; the next day, his corpse was found in the Tiber.<ref name="Villari" /> Alexander, overwhelmed with grief, shut himself up in [[Castel Sant'Angelo]]. He declared that henceforth the moral reform of the Church would be the sole object of his life. Every effort was made to discover the assassin. No conclusive explanation was ever reached,<ref>{{harvp|Mallett|1981|pp=162–166}}</ref> and it may be that the crime was simply as a result of one of the Duke's sexual liaisons.

=== Crime ===
{{Disputed section|date=April 2022}}
There is no evidence that the Borgias resorted to poisoning, judicial murder, or extortion to fund their schemes and the defense of the Papal States. The only contemporary accusations of poisoning were from some of their servants, extracted under torture by Alexander's bitter enemy Della Rovere, who succeeded him as [[Pope Julius II]].<ref>{{harvp|Mallett|1981|p=236}}</ref>

=== Savonarola ===
[[File:Girolamo Savonarola.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Girolamo Savonarola]]]]
The debased state of the Curia was a major scandal. Opponents, such as the powerful Florentine friar [[Girolamo Savonarola]], launched invectives against papal corruption and appealed for a general council to confront the papal abuses. Alexander is reported to have been reduced to laughter when Savonarola's denunciations were related to him. Nevertheless, he appointed [[Sebastian Maggi]] to investigate the friar, and he responded on 16 October 1495:
{{Blockquote|text=We are displeased at the disturbed state of affairs in Florence, the more so in that it owes its origin to your preaching. For you predict the future and publicly declare that you do so by the inspiration of the Holy Spirit when you should be reprehending vice and praising virtue ... Prophecies like these should not be made when your charge is to forward peace and concord. Moreover, these are not the time for such teachings, calculated as they are to produce discord even in times of peace let alone in times of trouble. ... Since, however, we have been most happy to learn from certain cardinals and from your letter that you are ready to submit yourself to the reproofs of the Church, as becomes a Christian and a religious, we are beginning to think that what you have done has not been done with an evil motive, but from a certain simple-mindedness and a zeal, however misguided, for the Lord's vineyard. Our duty, however, prescribes that we order you, under holy obedience, to cease from public and private preaching until you are able to come to our presence, not under armed escort as is your present habit, but safely, quietly and modestly as becomes a religious, or until we make different arrangements. If you obey, as we hope you will, we for the time being suspend the operation of our former Brief so that you may live in peace in accordance with the dictates of your conscience.<ref>{{harvp|de la Bédoyère|1958|pp=154–155}}</ref>}}

The hostility of Savonarola seems to have been political rather than personal, and the friar sent a letter of condolence to the pope on the death of the [[Duke of Gandía|Duke of Gandia]]; "Faith, most Holy Father, is the one and true source of peace and consolation... Faith alone brings consolation from a far-off country."<ref>{{harvp|de la Bédoyère|1958|p=24}}</ref> But eventually the Florentines tired of the friar's moralising and the Florentine government condemned the reformer to death, executing him on 23 May 1498.<ref>{{harvp|de la Bédoyère|1958|loc=passim}} {{Page needed|date=May 2017}}</ref>

=== Familial aggrandizement ===
The prominent Italian families looked down on the Spanish Borgia family, and they resented their power, which they sought for themselves. This is, at least partially, why both Pope Callixtus III and Pope Alexander VI gave powers to family members whom they could trust.{{#tag:ref|"The Spaniards had been trying to take back their country from the Moors for almost 800 years. By the middle of the 15th century, this reconquest was almost complete, but Spain was still a hodgepodge of competing principalities and, because of its constant state of warfare, still a very backward country. In Italy, on the other hand, the Renaissance, which had hardly begun in Spain, had reached its high point and the Italians, in general, did not look kindly on a citizen of this backward country being elevated to the highest post in the Church. Remember, too, that the pope at the time, besides his spiritual powers, was a sovereign political power with large areas of the peninsula, nominally, at least, under his control. Italy was, politically, in a worse state than Spain. In the south, Naples was a fief of the pope, but its ruler, King Ferrante, refused to acknowledge the pope's authority. In the north of the peninsula, many small principalities vied for dominance and were often at war with one another, changing alliances as rapidly as opportunity invited. In the Papal States themselves, noble families, such as the Orsini and the Colonna, acted as petty tyrants in the cities and areas which they controlled, grinding down the people and constantly seeking to achieve their independence from their sovereign, the pope. These Roman families even sought to control the Papacy itself. It was probably only because they could not agree on an Italian successor to Nicholas V that the elderly Callistus had been elected; one who, in all probability, would not live long...Callistus III was acknowledged by all as religious and austere, though severely criticized for his largesse to his family. But he was surrounded by enemies both within the Church and among the rulers of Europe. When elected, he did what all leaders do, he surrounded himself with people whom he believed he could trust. A Spaniard in Italy, he was hard-pressed to find such trustworthiness except from members of his own family; hence his patronage of them, though it is not to be denied that it was probably also for personal reasons."<ref>J.B. Darcy, [http://www.thefreelibrary.com/What+you+don%27t+know+about+the+Borgia+Pope%3A+Alexander+VI+%281492-1503%29.-a0268401837 ''What you don't know about the Borgia Pope: Alexander VI (1492–1503)''].</ref>|group=Note}}

[[File:Alexander - Bolla "Desiderando nui", dopo il 18 settembre 1499 - 2951587.tif|thumb|Papal bull ''Desiderando nui'', 1499]]

In these circumstances, Alexander, feeling more than ever that he could rely only on his own kin, turned his thoughts to further family aggrandizement. He had annulled Lucrezia's marriage to [[Giovanni Sforza]], who had responded to the suggestion that he was impotent with the unsubstantiated counterclaim that Alexander and Cesare indulged in incestuous relations with Lucrezia, in 1497.{{#tag:ref|"As for her reputation, there is absolutely no evidence for the rumors of incest with one or more of her brothers – or indeed with her father – apart from that given by her first husband, Giovanni Sforza, during the divorce proceedings, during which several other baseless accusations were leveled in both directions."<ref>{{harvp|Norwich|2011|p=272}}</ref>|group=Note}} Unable to arrange a union between Cesare and the daughter of King [[Frederick IV of Naples]] (who had succeeded Ferdinand II the previous year), he induced Frederick by threats to agree to a marriage between the Duke of [[Bisceglie]], a natural son of Alfonso II, and Lucrezia. Alexander and the new French king [[Louis XII]] entered a secret agreement; in exchange for a bull of divorce between the king and [[Joan of France, Duchess of Berry|Joan of France]] (so he could marry [[Anne of Brittany]]) and making [[Georges d'Amboise]] (the king's chief advisor) the cardinal of [[Rouen]], Cesare was given the duchy of [[Valentinois]] in France (chosen because it was homophonous with his nickname, Valentino, derived from his father's papal epithet ''Valentinus'' ("The [[Kingdom of Valencia|Valencian]]", as seen on his coins<ref>See inscription on 5 Ducat piece [[:File:Roma, alessandro VI, 5 ducati, 1492-1503.jpg]] "Alexander VI Pontifex Maximus Borgia Valentinus" ("The Valencian", his epithet indicating his birth in Xàtiva in the Kingdom of Valencia under the Crown of Aragon (now Spain)</ref> denoting his origin in the [[Kingdom of Valencia]], Spain), military assistance to help him subjugate the feudal princelings of papal Romagna,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Machiavelli |first1=Niccolò |title=The Prince and Selected Discourses |year=1981 |publisher=Bantam Books |location=New York |isbn=0-553-21227-3 |edition=Bantam Classic |page=[https://archive.org/details/princeclassics00nicc/page/127 127] |url=https://archive.org/details/princeclassics00nicc/page/127 }}</ref> and a princess bride, [[Charlotte of Albret]] from the [[Kingdom of Navarre]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Juan de Albret y Catalina de Foix o la defensa del Estado navarro (1483–1517)|last=Adot Lerga |first=Álvaro |publisher=Pamiela |year=2005 |isbn=84-7681-443-7|location=Pamplona/Iruñea|pages=164–65}}</ref>

Alexander hoped that Louis XII's help would be more profitable to his house than that of Charles VIII had been. In spite of the remonstrances of Spain and of the Sforza, he allied himself with France in January 1499 and was joined by Venice. By autumn Louis XII was in Italy expelling Lodovico Sforza from Milan. With French success seemingly assured, the Pope determined to deal drastically with Romagna, which although nominally under papal rule was divided into a number of practically independent lordships on which Venice, Milan, and Florence cast hungry eyes. Cesare, empowered by the support of the French, began to attack the turbulent cities one by one in his capacity as nominated ''[[Gonfalone of the Church|gonfaloniere]]'' (standard bearer) of the church. But the expulsion of the French from Milan and the return of Lodovico Sforza interrupted his conquests, and he returned to Rome early in 1500.

=== The Jubilee (1500) ===

In the [[Jubilee (Christianity)|Jubilee year]] 1500, Alexander ushered in the custom of opening a [[holy door]] on Christmas Eve and closing it on Christmas Day the following year. After consulting with his Master of Ceremonies, [[Johann Burchard]], Pope Alexander VI opened the first holy door in [[Old St. Peter's Basilica|St. Peter's Basilica]] on Christmas Eve 1499, and papal representatives opened the doors in the other three patriarchal basilicas. For this, Pope Alexander had a new opening created in the ''[[portico]]'' of St. Peter's and commissioned a marble door.{{#tag:ref|"The holy year 1500 definitively ushered in the custom of opening a holy door on Christmas Eve and closing it the following year on Christmas Day. Alexander opened the first holy door in St. Peter's Basilica on Christmas Eve, 1499, and papal legates opened the doors in the other three patriarchal basilicas. For this occasion, Pope Alexander had a new opening created in the portico of St. Peter's and commissioned a door, made of marble, 3.5 meters high and 2.2 wide. It lasted until 1618 when another door was installed in the new basilica. The door, in turn, was replaced in 1950 by the bronze door, which is still in use. In a ceremony strikingly similar in many ways to today's ritual opening of a holy door, Alexander was carried in the gestatorial chair to the portico of St. Peter's. He and the members of his retinue, bearing long candles, processed to the holy door, as the choir intoned Psalm 118:19–20: "Open for me the gate of Yahweh, where the upright go in." The pope knocked thrice on the door, it gave way (assisted from within by workers), and everyone then crossed the threshold to enter into a period of penance and reconciliation. Thus, Pope Alexander, a lover of pomp and ceremony, formalized the rite of opening a holy door and began a tradition that continues, with few variations, to this day. Similar rites were held at the other patriarchal basilicas. Alexander was also the first to institute a special rite for the closing of a holy door. On the feast of the Epiphany, 6 January 1501, two cardinals – one with a silver brick and the other with a gold one – symbolically began to seal the holy door. Basilica workers known as sanpietrini completed the task, which included placing small coins and medals, minted during the holy year, inside the wall."<ref name="holydoors">Allen Duston, O.P., and Roberto Zanoli, 2003, ''Saint Peter and the Vatican: The Legacy of the Popes'', Art Services Intl., {{ISBN|978-0-88397-140-6}}, pp. 158–159.</ref>|group=Note}}{{#tag:ref|"[A]ll the clergy of the city were invited to the opening of the [1500] Jubilee. The pope himself performed this ceremony on Christmas Eve, 1499, having taken pains to settle all the details beforehand with his Master of Ceremonies. The ceremonial observed on these occasions was no modern invention, but, as the Bull of Indiction expressly says, was founded on ancient rites and full of symbolic meaning. According to Burchard, the crowd which assisted at these solemnities numbered 200,000 persons. Although this may be an exaggeration, still it is certain that, in spite of the troubles of the times and the insecurity in Rome itself, the numbers attending this Jubilee were very large."<ref name="rorate-jubilee">{{cite web |url=http://rorate-caeli.blogspot.com/2013/09/oh-catholic-life-was-just-horrible.html |title=How awful was Catholic life under those immoral Renaissance Popes! |publisher=Rorate Caeli |access-date=25 March 2014}}</ref>|group=Note}}

Alexander was carried in the ''[[sedia gestatoria]]'' to St. Peter's. He and his assistants, bearing candles, processed to the holy door, as the choir chanted Psalm 118:19–20.<ref>{{bibleverse|Psalm|118:19–20|NASB}}</ref> The pope knocked on the door three times, workers moved it from the inside, and everyone then crossed the threshold to enter into a period of penance and reconciliation. Thus, Pope Alexander formalized the rite and began a longstanding tradition that is still in practice. Similar ceremonies were held at the other three basilicas.<ref name="holydoors" />

Alexander instituted a special rite for the closing of a holy door, as well. On the [[Epiphany (holiday)|Feast of the Epiphany]] in 1501, two cardinals began to seal the holy door with two bricks, one silver and one gold. ''Sampietrini'' (basilica workers){{#tag:ref|"The permanent group of skilled workers and artisans, in every trade, who with their assistants take care of St. Peter's Basilica."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/dictionary/index.cfm?id=36264 |title=Dictionary: Sampietrini |publisher=Catholic Culture |access-date=25 March 2014}}</ref>|group=Note}} completed the seal, placing specially-minted coins and medals inside the wall.<ref name="holydoors" />