Editing Piracy (section)

===Europe===

====Antiquity====

{{Further|Ancient Mediterranean piracy}}
[[File:Romtrireme.jpg|thumb|A [[mosaic]] of a [[Trireme|Roman trireme]] in Tunisia]]
The earliest documented instances of piracy are the exploits of the [[Sea People]]s who threatened the ships sailing in the Aegean and Mediterranean waters in the 14th century BC. In [[classical antiquity]], the [[Phoenicia]]ns, [[Illyrians]] and [[Tyrrhenians]] were known as pirates. In the pre-classical era, the [[ancient Greeks]] condoned piracy as a viable profession; it apparently was widespread and "regarded as an entirely honourable way of making a living".<ref name=mol>Møller, Bjørn. "Piracy, Maritime Terrorism and Naval Strategy." Copenhagen: Danish Institute for International Studies, November 16, 2008. 10.</ref> References are made to its perfectly normal occurrence in many texts including in Homer's ''[[Iliad]]'' and ''[[Odyssey]]'', and abduction of women and children to be sold into slavery was common. By the era of [[Classical Greece]], piracy was looked upon as a "disgrace" to have as a profession.<ref name=mol/><ref>[[Thucydides]] wrote: "For in early times the Hellenes and the barbarians of the coast and islands, as communication by sea became more common, were tempted to turn pirate...indeed, this came to be the main source of their livelihood, no disgrace being yet attached to such an achievement, but even some glory."</ref>

In the 3rd century BC, pirate attacks on [[Olympus (Lycia)|Olympus]] in [[Lycia]] brought impoverishment. Among some of the most famous ancient pirateering peoples were the Illyrians, a people populating the western Balkan peninsula. Constantly raiding the [[Adriatic Sea]], the Illyrians caused many conflicts with the [[Roman Republic]]. It was not until 229 BC when the Romans decisively beat the Illyrian fleets that their threat was ended.<ref name="WardHeichelheim2016">{{cite book|author1=Allen M. Ward|author2=Fritz M. Heichelheim|author3=Cedric A. Yeo|title=History of the Roman People|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Q83DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA100|date= 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-51120-7|page=100}}</ref> During the 1st century BC, there were pirate states along the Anatolian coast, threatening the commerce of the [[Roman Empire]] in the eastern Mediterranean. On one voyage across the [[Aegean Sea]] in 75&nbsp;BC,<ref>Again, according to Suetonius's chronology (''Julius'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#4 4] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226081027/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius%2A.html#4 |date=December 26, 2022 }}). Plutarch (''Caesar'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#1.8 1.8–2] {{Webarchive|url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20180213130122/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/plutarch/lives/caesar%2A.html#1.8 |date=February 13, 2018 }}) says this happened earlier, on his return from Nicomedes's court. Velleius Paterculus (''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2B*.html#41.3 2:41.3–42] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220731043323/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2B%2A.html#41.3 |date=July 31, 2022 }} says merely that it happened when he was a young man.</ref> [[Julius Caesar]] was kidnapped and briefly held by [[Cilician]] pirates and held prisoner in the [[Dodecanese]] islet of [[Pharmacusa]].<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' 1–2.</ref> The Senate invested the general [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]] with powers to deal with piracy in 67&nbsp;BC (the ''[[Lex Gabinia]]''), and Pompey, after three months of naval warfare, [[Pompey#Campaign against the pirates|managed to suppress the threat]].

As early as 258&nbsp;AD, the [[Goths|Gothic]]-[[Heruli]]c fleet ravaged towns on the coasts of the [[Black Sea]] and [[Sea of Marmara]]. The Aegean coast suffered similar attacks a few years later. In 264, the Goths reached [[Galatia]] and [[Cappadocia]], and Gothic pirates landed on Cyprus and [[Crete]]. In the process, the Goths seized enormous booty and took thousands into captivity.{{Citation needed|date=May 2015}} In 286&nbsp;AD, [[Carausius]], a Roman military commander of Gaulish origins, was appointed to command the ''[[Classis Britannica]]'', and given the responsibility of eliminating [[Franks|Frankish]] and [[Saxon]] pirates who had been raiding the coasts of [[Armorica]] and Belgic [[Gaul]]. In the Roman province of Britannia, [[Saint Patrick]] was captured and enslaved by Irish pirates.

====Middle Ages====

[[File:Viking invasion (Pierpont Morgan Library MS M.736, folio 9v) crop.jpg|thumb|right|A fleet of [[Vikings]], painted mid-12th century]]
The most widely recognized and far-reaching pirates in medieval Europe were the [[Vikings]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Golden Age of Piracy|url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/golden-age-piracy|access-date=2021-10-13|website=Royal Museums Greenwich |language=en|archive-date=October 27, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027024113/https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/golden-age-piracy|url-status=live}}</ref> seaborne warriors from [[Scandinavia]] who raided and looted mainly between the 8th and 12th centuries, during the [[Viking Age]] in the [[Early Middle Ages]]. They raided the coasts, rivers and inland cities of all Western Europe as far as [[Seville]], which was attacked by the Norse in 844. Vikings also attacked the coasts of North Africa and Italy and plundered all the coasts of the [[Baltic Sea]]. Some Vikings ascended the rivers of Eastern Europe as far as the Black Sea and Persia.

In the Late Middle Ages, the [[Frisians|Frisian]] pirates known as [[Arumer Zwarte Hoop]] led by [[Pier Gerlofs Donia]] and [[Wijerd Jelckama]], fought against the troops of the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] with some success.

Toward the end of the 9th century, Moorish pirate havens were established along the coast of southern France and northern Italy.<ref>{{cite web |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010622192246/http://www.geocities.com/athens/troy/4040/pirates.htm |archive-date=Jun 22, 2001 |title=The Pirates of St. Tropez |url=http://www.geocities.com/athens/troy/4040/pirates.htm |first1=Robert W. Jr. |last1=Lebling |website=The Empty Quarter }}</ref> In 846 Moor raiders [[Arab raid against Rome|sacked]] the ''extra muros'' Basilicas of [[Old saint peter's basilica|Saint Peter]] and [[Saint Paul Outside the Walls|Saint Paul]] in Rome. In 911, the bishop of [[Narbonne]] was unable to return to France from Rome because the Moors from [[Fraxinet]] controlled all the passes in the [[Alps]]. Moor pirates operated out of the [[Balearic Islands]] in the 10th century. From 824 to 961 [[Arab]] pirates in the [[Emirate of Crete]] raided the entire Mediterranean. In the 14th century, raids by Moor pirates forced the Venetian Duke of Crete to ask [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] to keep its fleet on constant guard.{{citation needed|date=November 2015}}

After the [[Slavs|Slavic]] invasions of the former [[Roman province of Dalmatia]] in the 5th and 6th centuries, a tribe called the [[Narentines]] revived the old Illyrian piratical habits and often raided the Adriatic Sea starting in the 7th century. Their raids in the Adriatic increased rapidly, until the whole Sea was no longer safe for travel.

The Narentines took more liberties in their raiding quests while the Venetian Navy was abroad, as when it was campaigning in Sicilian waters in 827–882. As soon as the Venetian fleet would return to the Adriatic, the Narentines momentarily outcast their habits again, even signing a Treaty in Venice and baptising their Slavic pagan leader into Christianity. In 834 or 835 they broke the treaty and again they raided Venetian traders returning from Benevento. All of Venice's military attempts to punish them in 839 and 840 utterly failed.

Later, they raided the Venetians more often, together with the [[Arabs]]. In 846, the Narentines broke through to Venice itself and raided its lagoon city of [[Caorle]]. This caused a Byzantine military action against them that brought Christianity to them. After the [[Caliphate|Arab]] raids on the [[Adriatic coast]] circa 872 and the retreat of the Imperial Navy, the Narentines continued their raids of Venetian waters, causing new conflicts with the Italians in 887–888. The Venetians futilely continued to fight them throughout the 10th and 11th centuries.

[[Domagoj of Croatia|Domagoj]] was accused of attacking a ship which was bringing home the papal legates who had participated in [[Fourth Council of Constantinople (Roman Catholic)|the Eighth Catholic Ecumenical Council]], after which [[Pope John VIII]] addresses to Domagoj with request that his pirates stop attacking Christians at sea.<ref>Vedran Duančić; (2008) ''Hrvatska između Bizanta i Franačke'' (in Croatian) p. 17; [https://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=82757] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113054932/https://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=82757|date=November 13, 2020}}</ref><ref>Maddalena Betti; (2013) ''The Making of Christian Moravia (858–882): Papal Power and Political Reality'' p. 129; Brill Academic Publishers, {{ISBN|900421187X}}</ref>

[[File:Vitalienbrueder.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The Vitalienbrüder. Piracy became endemic in the [[Baltic Sea]] in the [[Middle Ages]] because of the [[Victual Brothers]].]]
In 937, Irish pirates sided with the Scots, Vikings, [[Picts]], and Welsh in their invasion of England. [[Athelstan]] drove them back.

The [[Baltic Slavic piracy|Slavic piracy]] in the Baltic Sea ended with the [[Siege of Arkona|Danish conquest]] of the [[Rani (Slavic tribe)|Rani]] stronghold of [[Cape Arkona|Arkona]] in 1168. In the 12th century the coasts of western Scandinavia were plundered by [[Curonians]] and [[Oeselians]] from the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea. In the 13th and 14th century, pirates threatened the [[Hanseatic]] routes and nearly brought sea trade to the brink of extinction. The [[Victual Brothers]] of [[Gotland]] were a companionship of privateers who later turned to piracy as the [[Likedeelers]]. They were especially noted for their leaders [[Klaus Störtebeker]] and [[Gödeke Michels]]. Until about 1440, maritime trade in both the [[North Sea]], the Baltic Sea and the [[Gulf of Bothnia]] was seriously in danger of attack by the pirates.

H. Thomas Milhorn mentions a certain Englishman named William Maurice, convicted of piracy in 1241, as the first person known to have been [[hanged, drawn and quartered]],<ref>H Thomas Milhorn, ''Crime: Computer Viruses to Twin Towers'', Universal Publishers, 2004. {{ISBN|1-58112-489-9}}.</ref> which would indicate that the then-ruling King [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] took an especially severe view of this crime.

The [[ushkuiniks]] were [[Novgorod]]ian pirates who looted the cities on the [[Volga]] and [[Kama]] Rivers in the 14th century.

[[File:Cotes de la Mer Noire. Cosaques d'Azof abordant un corsaire Turc. (1847).jpg|thumb|"Cossacks of Azov fighting a Turk ship" by [[Grigory Gagarin]]]]
As early as [[Byzantine]] times, the [[Maniots]] (one of Greece's toughest populations) were known as pirates. The Maniots considered piracy as a legitimate response to the fact that their land was poor and it became their main source of income. The main victims of Maniot pirates were the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] but the Maniots also targeted ships of European countries.

[[Zaporizhian Sich]] was a pirate republic in Europe from the 16th through to the 18th century. Situated in [[Cossack]] territory in the remote [[Eurasian Steppe|steppe]] of Eastern Europe, it was populated with Ukrainian peasants that had run away from their feudal masters, outlaws, destitute gentry, run-away slaves from Turkish [[galleys]], etc. The remoteness of the place and the rapids at the [[Dnieper]] river effectively guarded the place from invasions of vengeful powers.

The main target of the inhabitants of the Zaporizhian Sich who called themselves "Cossacks", were rich settlements at the Black Sea shores of Ottoman Empire and [[Crimean Khanate]].{{citation needed|date=November 2015}} By 1615 and 1625, [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]] had even managed to raze townships on the outskirts of [[Istanbul]], forcing the [[Ottoman Sultan]] to flee his palace.{{citation needed|date=November 2015}} [[Don Cossacks]] under [[Stenka Razin]] even ravaged the Persian coasts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cindyvallar.com/razin.html|title=Pirates & Privateers: The History of Maritime Piracy |author=Stepan Razin|website=www.cindyvallar.com|access-date=August 28, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070805222255/http://www.cindyvallar.com/razin.html|archive-date=August 5, 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=November 2015}}

====Mediterranean corsairs====

{{see also|Barbary pirates|Albanian piracy}}
[[File:A French Ship and Barbary Pirates (c 1615) by Aert Anthoniszoon.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|A French ship under attack by Barbary pirates, ca. 1615]]
Though less famous and romanticized than Atlantic or Caribbean pirates, corsairs in the [[Mediterranean]] equaled or outnumbered the former at any given point in history.<ref name="Earle 2003, p. 89">Earle (2003), p. 89</ref> Mediterranean piracy was conducted almost entirely with galleys until the mid-17th century, when they were gradually replaced with highly maneuverable sailing vessels such as [[xebec]]s and [[brigantine]]s. They were of a smaller type than battle galleys, often referred to as [[galiot]]s or [[fusta]]s.<ref>Guilmartin (1974), pp. 217–219</ref>

Pirate galleys were small, nimble, lightly armed, but often crewed in large numbers in order to overwhelm the often minimal crews of merchant ships. In general, pirate craft were extremely difficult for patrolling craft to actually hunt down and capture. [[Anne Hilarion de Tourville]], a French admiral of the 17th century, believed that the only way to run down raiders from the infamous corsair Moroccan port of [[Salé]] was by using a captured pirate vessel of the same type.<ref>Earle (2003), p. 45</ref>
[[File:Debarquement et maltraitement de prisonniers a alger.JPG|thumb|Barbary pirates were involved in the [[Barbary slave trade]] in North Africa]]
Using oared vessels to combat pirates was common, and was even practiced by the major powers in the Caribbean. Purpose-built galleys, or hybrid sailing vessels, were built by the English in Jamaica in 1683<ref>Earle (2003), p. 137</ref> and by the Spanish in the late 16th century.<ref>Glete (2000), p. 151</ref> Specially-built sailing frigates with oar-ports on the lower decks, like the ''James Galley'' and ''[[Charles Galley]]'', and oar-equipped sloops proved highly useful for pirate hunting, though they were not built in sufficient numbers to check piracy until the 1720s.<ref>Earle (2003), p. 139</ref>

The expansion of Muslim power through the Ottoman conquest of large parts of the eastern Mediterranean in the 15th and 16th century resulted in extensive piracy on sea trading. The so-called [[Barbary pirates]] began to operate out of North African ports in Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, Morocco around 1500, preying primarily on the shipping of Christian powers, including massive slave raids at sea as well as on land. The Barbary pirates were nominally under Ottoman [[suzerainty]], but had considerable independence to prey on the enemies of Islam. The Muslim corsairs were technically often privateers with support from legitimate, though highly belligerent, states. They considered themselves as holy Muslim warriors, or [[ghazis]],<ref>Guilmartin (1974), p. 120</ref> carrying on the tradition of fighting the incursion of Western Christians that had begun with the [[First Crusade]] late in the 11th century.<ref name="Earle 2003, pp. 39-52">Earle (2003), pp. 39–52</ref>

[[File:Anglo-Dutch fleet in the bay of Algiers as support for the ultimatum demanding the release of white slaves on august 26 1816 (Nicolaas Baur, 1818).jpg|thumb|The [[Bombardment of Algiers (1816)|Bombardment of Algiers]] by the Anglo-Dutch fleet in 1816 to support the ultimatum to release European slaves]]

Coastal villages and towns of Italy, Spain and [[List of islands in the Mediterranean|islands in the Mediterranean]] were frequently attacked by Muslim corsairs, and long stretches of the Italian and Spanish coasts were almost completely abandoned by their inhabitants. After 1600, the Barbary corsairs occasionally entered the Atlantic and struck as far north as Iceland. According to Robert Davis between 1&nbsp;million and 1.25&nbsp;million Europeans were captured by Barbary corsairs and sold as slaves in North Africa and the [[Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries. The most famous corsairs were the Ottoman [[Albanians|Albanian]] [[Hayreddin Barbarossa|Hayreddin]] and his older brother [[Oruç Reis]] (Redbeard), [[Turgut Reis]] (known as Dragut in the West), [[Kurtoglu Muslihiddin Reis|Kurtoglu]] (known as Curtogoli in the West), [[Kemal Reis]], [[Salih Reis]] and [[Koca Murat Reis]]. A few Barbary corsairs, such as the Dutch [[Jan Janszoon]] and the English [[John Ward (pirate)|John Ward]] (Muslim name Yusuf Reis), were renegade European privateers who had converted to Islam.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|title=When Europeans were slaves: Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=July 25, 2011}}</ref><ref>"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C&pg=PR14 Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226081027/https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C&pg=PR14 |date=December 26, 2022 }}''". Robert Davis (2004) {{ISBN|1-4039-4551-9}}</ref>

The Barbary pirates had a direct Christian counterpart in the military order of the [[Knights of Saint John]] that operated first out of [[Rhodes]] and after 1530 [[Malta]], though they were less numerous and took fewer slaves. Both sides waged war against the respective enemies of their faith, and both used galleys as their primary weapons. Both sides also used captured or bought [[galley slave]]s to man the oars of their ships. The Muslims relied mostly on captured Christians, the Christians used a mix of Muslim slaves, Christian convicts and a small contingency of ''buonavoglie'', free men who out of desperation or poverty had taken to rowing.<ref name="Earle 2003, pp. 39-52"/>

Historian Peter Earle has described the two sides of the Christian-Muslim Mediterranean conflict as "mirror image[s] of maritime predation, two businesslike fleets of plunderers set against each other".<ref>Earle (2003), pp. 51–52</ref> This conflict of faith in the form of privateering, piracy and slave raiding generated a complex system that was upheld/financed/operated on the trade in plunder and slaves that was generated from a low-intensive conflict, as well as the need for protection from violence. The system has been described as a "massive, multinational protection racket",<ref>Earle (2003), p. 83</ref> the Christian side of which was not ended until 1798 in the Napoleonic Wars. The Barbary corsairs were quelled as late as the 1830s, effectively ending the last vestiges of counter-crusading [[jihad]].<ref>Earle (2003), p. 85</ref>

[[File:Amaro Pargo.jpg|thumb|[[Amaro Rodríguez Felipe|Amaro Pargo]] was one of the most famous corsairs of the [[Golden Age of Piracy]]]]
Piracy off the [[Barbary coast]] was often assisted by competition among European powers in the 17th century. France encouraged the corsairs against Spain, and later Britain and Holland supported them against France. By the second half of the 17th century the greater European naval powers began to initiate reprisals to intimidate the Barbary States into making peace with them. The most successful of the Christian states in dealing with the corsair threat was England.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}} From the 1630s onwards England had signed peace treaties with the Barbary States on various occasions, but invariably breaches of these agreements led to renewed wars.

[[Albanian piracy]], mainly centered in the town of [[Ulcinj]] (thus came to be known as ''[[Albanian piracy|Dulcignotti]]''), flourished during the 15th to the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Canka |first=Mustafa |date=2024 |title=The Pirate Republic of Ulcinj: An Epic of Two Centuries |url=https://en.vijesti.me/culture/728069/the-pirate-republic-of-Ulcinj%2C-a-two-century-long-epic |work=Vijesti}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-27 |title=Albanian piracy |url=https://balkanacademia.com/2023/08/27/albanian-piracy/ |access-date=2024-11-24 |website=Balkan Academia |language=en}}</ref>

France, which had recently emerged as a leading naval power, achieved comparable success soon afterwards, with bombardments of Algiers in 1682, 1683 and 1688 securing a lasting peace, while Tripoli was similarly coerced in 1686. In 1783 and 1784 the Spaniards bombarded [[Algiers]] in an effort to stem the piracy. The [[Bombardment of Algiers (1784)|second time]], [[Antonio Barceló|Admiral Barceló]] damaged the city so severely that the Algerian [[Dey]] asked Spain to negotiate a peace treaty. From then on, Spanish vessels and coasts were safe for several years.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

Until the American [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] in 1776, [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] treaties with the [[Northwest Africa|North African]] states protected American ships from the [[Barbary]] corsairs. [[Morocco]], which in 1777 was [[Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship|the first independent nation to publicly recognize the United States]], became in 1784 the first Barbary power to seize an American vessel after independence. While the United States managed to secure peace treaties, these obliged it to pay tribute for protection from attack. Payments in ransom and tribute to the Barbary states amounted to 20% of United States government annual expenditures in 1800,<ref>{{cite web|last=Oren|first=Michael B.|title=The Middle East and the Making of the United States, 1776 to 1815|date=2005-11-03|url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/news/05/11/michaelOren.html|access-date=2007-02-18|archive-date=July 15, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715201453/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/news/05/11/michaelOren.html|url-status=live}}</ref> leading to the [[Barbary Wars]] that ended the payment of tribute. Algiers broke the 1805 peace treaty after only two years, and refused to implement the 1815 treaty until compelled to do so by Britain in 1816.

In 1815, the sacking of Palma on the island of [[Sardinia]] by a Tunisian squadron, which carried off 158 inhabitants, roused widespread indignation. Britain had [[Slave Trade Act 1807|by this time banned the slave trade]] and was seeking to induce other countries to do likewise. This led to complaints from states which were still vulnerable to the corsairs that Britain's enthusiasm for ending the trade in [[Atlantic slave trade|African slaves]] did not extend to stopping the enslavement of Europeans and Americans by the Barbary States.

[[File:Decatur Boarding the Tripolitan Gunboat.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|U.S. naval officer [[Stephen Decatur]] boarding a Tripolitan gunboat during the [[First Barbary War]], 1804]]
In order to neutralise this objection and further the anti-slavery campaign, in 1816 [[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth|Lord Exmouth]] was sent to secure new concessions from [[Ottoman Tripolitania|Tripoli]], [[Beylik of Tunis|Tunis]], and [[Ottoman Algeria|Algiers]], including a pledge to treat Christian captives in any future conflict as [[prisoners of war]] rather than slaves and the imposition of peace between Algiers and the kingdoms of [[Piedmont-Sardinia|Sardinia]] and [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies|Sicily]]. On his first visit he negotiated satisfactory treaties and sailed for home. While he was negotiating, a number of Sardinian fishermen who had settled at [[Annaba|Bona]] on the Tunisian coast were brutally treated without his knowledge. As [[Sardinians]] they were technically under British protection and the government sent Exmouth back to secure reparation. On August 17, in combination with a Dutch squadron under Admiral Van de Capellen, he bombarded Algiers.<ref name=EB1911/> Both Algiers and Tunis made fresh concessions as a result.

Securing uniform compliance with a total prohibition of slave-raiding, which was traditionally of central importance to the North African economy, presented difficulties beyond those faced in ending attacks on ships of individual nations, which had left slavers able to continue their accustomed way of life by preying on less well-protected peoples. Algiers renewed its slave-raiding, though on a smaller scale. Measures to be taken against the city's government were discussed at the [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)|Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle]] in 1818. In 1820, another British fleet under Admiral Sir Harry Neal again bombarded Algiers. Corsair activity based in Algiers did not entirely cease until its [[French Algeria#French conquest of Algeria|conquest by France in 1830]].<ref name=EB1911>{{EB1911|wstitle=Barbary Pirates|inline=1}}</ref>