Editing Pigment (section)

==History==
Minerals have been used as colorants since prehistoric times.<ref name="StClair">{{cite book |title=The Secret Lives of Colour |last=St. Clair |first=Kassia |publisher=John Murray |year=2016 |isbn=9781473630819 |location=London |pages=21, 237 |oclc=936144129}}</ref> Early humans used [[paint]] for aesthetic purposes such as body decoration. Pigments and paint grinding equipment believed to be between 350,000 and 400,000 years old have been reported in a [[cave]] at Twin Rivers, near [[Lusaka]], [[Zambia]]. [[Ochre]], iron oxide, was the first color of paint.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/sci/tech/733747.stm |title=Earliest evidence of art found |work=BBC News |date=2 May 2000 |access-date=1 May 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603214144/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/sci/tech/733747.stm |archive-date=3 June 2016}}</ref> A favored blue pigment was derived from [[lapis lazuli]]. Pigments based on minerals and clays often bear the name of the city or region where they were originally mined. [[Sienna|Raw sienna]] and [[burnt sienna]] came from [[Siena]], [[Italy]], while [[raw umber]] and [[burnt umber]] came from [[Umbria]]. These pigments were among the easiest to synthesize, and chemists created modern colors based on the originals. These were more consistent than colors mined from the original ore bodies, but the place names remained. Also found in many [[Paleolithic]] and [[Neolithic]] [[cave painting]]s are Red Ochre, anhydrous Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, and the hydrated Yellow Ochre (Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub><sup>.</sup>H<sub>2</sub>O).<ref name="webexhibits1">{{cite web |url=http://webexhibits.org/pigments/ |title=Pigments Through the Ages |access-date=18 October 2007 |work=WebExhibits |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011071107/http://webexhibits.org/pigments/ |archive-date=11 October 2007}}</ref> Charcoal—or carbon black—has also been used as a black pigment since prehistoric times.<ref name="webexhibits1"/>

The first known synthetic pigment was [[Egyptian blue]], which is first attested on an alabaster bowl in Egypt dated to [[Naqada III]] (''circa'' 3250 BC).<ref>Lorelei H. Corcoran, "The Color Blue as an 'Animator' in Ancient Egyptian Art", in Rachael B.Goldman, (ed.), ''Essays in Global Color History: Interpreting the Ancient Spectrum'' (New Jersey: Gorgias Press, 2016), pp. 59–82.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rossotti |first=Hazel |title=Colour: Why the World Isn't Grey |year=1983 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, NJ |isbn=0-691-02386-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/colour00ross}}</ref> Egyptian blue (blue frit), calcium copper silicate CaCuSi<sub>4</sub>O<sub>10</sub>, made by heating a mixture of [[quartz]] sand, [[limestone|lime]], a [[ceramic flux|flux]] and a [[copper]] source, such as [[malachite]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Berke |first=Heinz |title=The invention of blue and purple pigments in ancient times |journal=Chemical Society Reviews |volume=36 |pages=15–30 |date=2007 |issue=1 |doi=10.1039/b606268g |pmid=17173142 |url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2007/cs/b606268g}}</ref> Already invented in the [[Predynastic Period of Egypt]], its use became widespread by the [[4th Dynasty]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hatton |first1=G.D. |last2=Shortland |first2=A.J. |last3=Tite |first3=M.S. |title=The production technology of Egyptian blue and green frits from second millenium BC Egypt and Mesopotamia |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=35 |pages=1591–1604 |date=2008 |issue=6 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2007.11.008 |bibcode=2008JArSc..35.1591H |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305440307002166}}</ref> It was the blue pigment par excellence of [[Roman antiquity]]; its art technological traces vanished in the course of the [[Middle Ages]] until its rediscovery in the context of the [[Egyptian campaign]] and the excavations in [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]].<ref name="NaturePortfolio">{{cite journal |last1=Dariz |first1=Petra |last2=Schmid |first2=Thomas |title=Trace compounds in Early Medieval Egyptian blue carry information on provenance, manufacture, application, and ageing |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=11 |number=11296 |date=2021 |page=11296 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-90759-6 |pmid=34050218 |pmc=8163881 |bibcode=2021NatSR..1111296D}}</ref> Later premodern synthetic pigments include [[white lead]] (basic lead carbonate, (PbCO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>Pb(OH)<sub>2</sub>),<ref>[http://colourlex.com/project/lead-white/ Lead white] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225004451/http://colourlex.com/project/lead-white/ |date=25 December 2015}} at ColourLex</ref> [[vermilion]], [[verdigris]], and [[lead-tin yellow]]. Vermilion, a [[mercury (element)|mercury]] [[sulfide]], was originally made by grinding a powder of natural [[cinnabar]]. From the 17th century on, it was also synthesized from the elements.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Secret Lives of Colour |last=St. Clair |first=Kassia |publisher=John Murray |year=2016 |isbn=9781473630819 |location=London |pages=146 |oclc=936144129}}</ref> It was favored by old masters such as [[Titian]]. [[Indian yellow]] was once produced by collecting the urine of cattle that had been fed only [[mango]] leaves.<ref name="History of Indian Yellow">{{cite web |url=http://www.webexhibits.org/pigments/indiv/history/indianyellow.html |title=History of Indian yellow |work=Pigments Through the Ages |access-date=13 February 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221234605/http://www.webexhibits.org/pigments/indiv/history/indianyellow.html |archive-date=21 December 2014}}</ref> Dutch and Flemish painters of the 17th and 18th centuries favored it for its [[luminescent]] qualities, and often used it to represent [[sunlight]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}} Since mango leaves are nutritionally inadequate for cattle, the practice of harvesting Indian yellow was eventually declared to be inhumane.<ref name="History of Indian Yellow"/> Modern hues of Indian yellow are made from synthetic pigments. Vermillion has been partially replaced in by cadmium reds.

Because of the cost of [[lapis lazuli]], substitutes were often used. [[Prussian blue]], the oldest modern synthetic pigment, was discovered by accident in 1704.<ref>[https://colourlex.com/project/prussian-blue/ Prussian blue] at ColourLex</ref> By the early 19th century, synthetic and metallic blue pigments included [[ultramarine|French ultramarine]], a synthetic form of [[lapis lazuli]]. Ultramarine was manufactured by treating [[aluminium silicate]] with [[sulfur]]. Various forms of [[cobalt blue]] and [[Cerulean blue]] were also introduced. In the early 20th century, [[Phthalocyanine Blue BN|Phthalo Blue]], a synthetic metallo-organic pigment was prepared. At the same time, [[Royal Blue]], another name once given to tints produced from lapis lazuli, has evolved to signify a much lighter and brighter color, and is usually mixed from [[Phthalo Blue]] and [[titanium dioxide]], or from inexpensive synthetic blue dyes.

The discovery in 1856 of [[mauveine]], the first [[aniline dye]]s, was a forerunner for the development of hundreds of [[synthetic dye]]s and pigments like [[azo dye|azo]] and [[diazo]] compounds. These dyes ushered in the flourishing of organic chemistry, including systematic designs of colorants. The development of organic chemistry diminished the dependence on inorganic pigments.<ref>{{cite book |title=Mauve: How One Man Invented a Color That Changed the World |author=Simon Garfield |year=2000 |publisher=[[Faber and Faber]] |isbn=0-393-02005-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/mauvehowonemanin00garf}}</ref>
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According to Diana Magaloni, the Florentine Codex contains a variety of illustrations with multiple variations of the red pigments. Specifically in the case of ''achiotl (light red),'' technical analysis of the paint reveals multiple layers of the pigment although the layers of the pigment is not visible to the naked eye. Therefore, it proves that the process of applying multiple layers is more significant in comparison to the actual color itself. Furthermore, the process of layering the various hues of the same pigment on top of each other enabled the Aztec artists to create variations in the intensity of the subject matter. A bolder application of pigment draws the viewer's eye to the subject matter which commands attention and suggests a power of the viewer. A weaker application of pigment commands less attention and has less power. This would suggest that the Aztec associated the intensity of pigments with the idea of power and life.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Colors of The New World |last=Magaloni Kerpel |first=Diana |publisher=The Getty Research Institute |year=2014 |location=Los Angeles, CA |pages=35–40}}</ref>

Natives of [[Peru]] had been producing cochineal dyes for textiles since at least 700 CE,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Dye Analysis of Pre-Columbian Peruvian Textiles with High-Performance Liquid Chromatography and Diode-Array Detection |author=Jan Wouters, Noemi Rosario-Chirinos |year=1992 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |journal=Journal of the American Institute for Conservation |doi=10.2307/3179495 |jstor=3179495 |publisher=The American Institute for Conservation of Historic &}}</ref> but Europeans had never seen the color before. When the Spanish invaded the [[Aztecs|Aztec empire]] in what is now [[Mexico]], they were quick to exploit the color for new trade opportunities. [[Carmine]] became the region's second-most-valuable export next to silver. Pigments produced from the cochineal insect gave the [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Catholic cardinals]] their vibrant robes and the English "Redcoats" their distinctive uniforms. The true source of the pigment—an insect—was kept secret until the 18th century, when biologists discovered the source.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Perfect Red: Empire, Espionage, and the Quest for the Color of Desire |author=Amy Butler Greenfield |date=26 April 2005 |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |isbn=0-06-052275-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/perfectred00amyb_0}}</ref>

[[File:1665 Girl with a Pearl Earring.jpg|thumb|''Girl with a Pearl Earring'' by [[Johannes Vermeer]] ({{circa|1665}}).]]

While carmine was popular in Europe, blue remained an exclusive color, associated with wealth and status. The 17th-century Dutch master [[Johannes Vermeer]] often made lavish use of [[lapis lazuli]], along with carmine and [[Indian yellow]], in his vibrant paintings.-->
<gallery caption="Paintings illustrating advances in pigments" widths="180px" heights="160px">
File:Johannes Vermeer - Het melkmeisje - Google Art Project.jpg|''The Milkmaid'' by [[Johannes Vermeer]] ({{circa|1658}}). Vermeer was lavish in his choice of expensive pigments, including [[lead-tin yellow]], natural [[ultramarine]], and [[madder lake]], as shown in the vibrant painting.<ref>[http://colourlex.com/project/vermeer-the-milkmaid/ Johannes Vermeer, The Milkmaid] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414144606/http://colourlex.com/project/vermeer-the-milkmaid/ |date=14 April 2015}}, ColourLex</ref>
File:Tizian 041.jpg|[[Titian]] used the historic pigment [[vermilion]] to create the reds in the oil painting of [[Assumption of the Virgin (Titian)|Assunta]], completed {{circa|1518}}.
File:Tintoretto_-_Miracle_of_the_Slave.jpg|''Miracle of the Slave'' by [[Tintoretto]] ({{circa|1548}}). The son of a master [[dye]]r, Tintoretto used Carmine Red Lake pigment, derived from the [[cochineal]] insect, to achieve dramatic color effects.
File:Paul Cézanne 160.jpg|''Self Portrait'' by [[Paul Cézanne]]. Working in the late 19th century, Cézanne had a much broader palette of colors than his predecessors.
</gallery>