Editing Phonetics (section)

===Modern===
Advancements in phonetics after Pāṇini and his contemporaries were limited until the modern era, save some limited investigations by Greek and Roman grammarians. In the millennia between Indic grammarians and modern phonetics, the focus shifted from the difference between spoken and written language, which was the driving force behind Pāṇini's account, and began to focus on the physical properties of speech alone. Sustained interest in phonetics began again around 1800 CE with the term "phonetics" being first used in the present sense in 1841.{{sfn|Oxford English Dictionary|2018}}{{sfn|Caffrey|2017}} With new developments in medicine and the development of audio and visual recording devices, phonetic insights were able to use and review new and more detailed data. This early period of modern phonetics included the development of an influential phonetic alphabet based on articulatory positions by [[Alexander Melville Bell]]. Known as [[visible speech]], it gained prominence as a tool in the [[Oralism|oral education of deaf children]].{{sfn|Caffrey|2017}}

Before the widespread availability of audio recording equipment, phoneticians relied heavily on a tradition of practical phonetics to ensure that transcriptions and findings were able to be consistent across phoneticians. This training involved both ear training—the recognition of speech sounds—as well as production training—the ability to produce sounds. Phoneticians were expected to learn to recognize by ear the various sounds on the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] and the IPA still tests and certifies speakers on their ability to accurately produce the phonetic patterns of English (though they have discontinued this practice for other languages).{{sfn|Roach|2015}} As a revision of his visible speech method, Melville Bell developed a description of vowels by height and backness resulting in 9 [[cardinal vowel]]s.{{sfn|Ladefoged|1960|p=388}} As part of their training in practical phonetics, phoneticians were expected to learn to produce these cardinal vowels to anchor their perception and transcription of these phones during fieldwork.{{sfn|Roach|2015}} This approach was critiqued by [[Peter Ladefoged]] in the 1960s based on experimental evidence where he found that cardinal vowels were auditory rather than articulatory targets, challenging the claim that they represented articulatory anchors by which phoneticians could judge other articulations.{{sfn|Ladefoged|1960}}