Editing Phanerozoic (section)

==Eras of the Phanerozoic==
[[File:Phanerozoic - Evolutionary history of life.png|thumb|280px|Eras of the Phanerozoic each represented by characteristic developments]]
The Phanerozoic is divided into three [[era (geology)|era]]s: the [[Paleozoic]], [[Mesozoic]] and [[Cenozoic]], which are further subdivided into 12 [[period (geology)|period]]s. The Paleozoic features the evolution of the three most prominent animal phyla, [[arthropod]]s, [[mollusc]]s and [[chordate]]s, the last of which includes [[fish]], [[amphibian]]s and the fully terrestrial [[amniote]]s ([[synapsid]]s and [[sauropsid]]s). The Mesozoic features the evolution of [[crocodilian]]s, [[turtle]]s, [[dinosaur]]s (including [[bird]]s), [[lepidosaur]]s ([[lizard]]s and [[snake]]s) and [[mammal]]s. The Cenozoic begins with the [[Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event|extinction of all non-avian dinosaurs]], [[pterosaur]]s and [[marine reptile]]s, and features the great diversification in birds and mammals. [[Human]]s appeared and evolved during the most recent part of the Cenozoic.

===Paleozoic Era===
{{Main|Paleozoic}}
The Paleozoic is a time in Earth's history when active complex life forms evolved, took their first foothold on dry land, and when the forerunners of all multicellular life on Earth began to diversify. There are six periods in the Paleozoic era: [[Cambrian]], [[Ordovician]], [[Silurian]], [[Devonian]], [[Carboniferous]] and [[Permian]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/paleozoic/paleozoic.php|title=Paleozoic|author=University of California|work=University of California|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502123522/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/paleozoic/paleozoic.php|archive-date=2 May 2015}}</ref>

====Cambrian Period====
{{Main|Cambrian}}The Cambrian is the first period of the Paleozoic Era and ran from 539 million to 485&nbsp;million years ago. The Cambrian sparked a [[evolutionary radiation|rapid expansion in the diversity]] of animals, in an event known as the [[Cambrian explosion]], during which the greatest number of animal [[body plan]]s evolved in a single period in the history of Earth. Complex [[algae]] evolved, and the fauna was dominated by armoured arthropods (such as [[trilobite]]s and [[radiodontid]]s) and to a lesser extent shelled [[cephalopod]]s (such as [[orthocone]]s). Almost all [[Phylum|phyla]] of marine animals evolved in this period. During this time, the super-continent [[Pannotia]] began to break up, most of which later recombined into the super-continent [[Gondwana]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cambrian/cambrian.php|title=Cambrian|author=University of California|work=University of California|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515190500/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cambrian/cambrian.php|archive-date=15 May 2012}}</ref>

====Ordovician Period====
{{Main|Ordovician}}
The Ordovician spans from 485 million to 444&nbsp;million years ago. The Ordovician was a time in Earth's history in which many groups still prevalent today evolved or diversified, such as primitive [[nautiloid]]s, [[vertebrate]]s (then only [[jawless fish]]) and [[corals]]. This process is known as the [[Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event]] or GOBE. Trilobites began to be replaced by [[articulate brachiopod]]s, and [[crinoid]]s also became an increasingly important part of the fauna.<ref name="Cooper1986">{{cite book |title=A Trip Through Time: Principles of Historical Geology |last=Cooper |first=John D. |author2=Miller, Richard H. |author3=Patterson, Jacqueline |year=1986 |publisher=Merrill Publishing Company |location=Columbus |isbn=978-0-675-20140-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/tripthroughtimep0000coop/page/247 247, 255&ndash;259] |url=https://archive.org/details/tripthroughtimep0000coop/page/247 }}</ref> The first [[arthropod]]s crept ashore to colonise [[Gondwana]], a continent empty of animal life. A group of freshwater [[green algae]], the [[streptophyte]]s, also survived being washed ashore and began to colonize the [[flood plain]]s and [[riparian zone]]s, giving rise to primitive [[land plant]]s.

By the end of the Ordovician, Gondwana had moved from the equator to the [[South Pole]], and [[Laurentia]] had collided with [[Baltica]], closing the [[Iapetus Ocean]]. The glaciation of Gondwana resulted in a major drop in sea level, killing off all life that had established along its coast. Glaciation caused an [[icehouse Earth]], leading to the [[Ordovician–Silurian extinction events|Ordovician–Silurian extinction]], during which 60% of marine invertebrates and 25% of families became extinct. Though one of the deadliest mass extinctions in earth's history, the O–S extinction did not cause profound ecological changes between the periods.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ordovician/ordovician.php|title=Ordovician|author=University of California|work=University of California|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502201732/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ordovician/ordovician.php|archive-date=2 May 2015}}</ref>

====Silurian Period====
{{Main|Silurian}}
[[File:Dalmanites limulurus trilobite silurian.jpg|left|thumb|177x177px|''[[Dalmanites|Dalmanites limulurus]]'', a species of Silurian [[trilobite]]s]]
The Silurian spans from 444 million to 419&nbsp;million years ago, which saw a warming from an icehouse Earth. This period saw the [[evolution of fish|mass diversification of fish]], as jawless fish became more numerous, and early [[jawed fish]] and [[freshwater fish|freshwater species]] appeared in the fossil record. Arthropods remained abundant, and some groups, such as [[eurypterid]]s, became [[apex predator]]s in the ocean. Fully terrestrial life established itself on land, including early [[fungi]], [[arachnid]]s, [[Hexapoda|hexapod]]s and [[myriapod]]s. The evolution of [[vascular plant]]s (mainly [[spore]]-producing [[fern]]s such as ''[[Cooksonia]]'') allowed land plants to gain a foothold further inland as well. During this time, there were four continents: [[Gondwana]] (Africa, South America, Australia, Antarctica, India), [[Laurentia]] (North America with parts of Europe), [[Baltica]] (the rest of Europe), and [[Siberia (continent)|Siberia]] (Northern Asia).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/silurian/silurian.php|author=University of California|title=Silurian|work=University of California|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616141804/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/silurian/silurian.php|archive-date=16 June 2017}}</ref>

====Devonian Period====
{{Main|Devonian}}
[[File:Ostracoderm digital recreation..jpg|thumb|left|''[[Cephalaspis]]'', a jawless fish]]
The Devonian spans from 419 million to 359&nbsp;million years ago. Also informally known as the "Age of the Fish", the Devonian features a huge diversification in fish such as the jawless [[conodont]]s and [[ostracoderm]]s, as well as jawed fish such as the armored [[placoderm]]s (e.g. ''[[Dunkleosteus]]''), the spiny [[acanthodian]]s and early [[bony fish]]. The Devonian also saw the primitive appearance of modern fish groups such as [[Chondrichthyes|chondricthyan]]s ([[cartilaginous fish]]) and [[osteichthyan]]s (bony fish), the latter of which include two [[clade]]s — the [[actinopterygian]]s ([[ray-finned fish]]) and [[sarcopterygian]]s ([[lobe-finned fish]]). One lineage of sarcopterygians, [[Rhipidistia]], evolved [[Tetrapodomorpha|the first four-limbed vertebrates]], which would eventually become [[tetrapod]]s. On land, plant groups diversified after the [[Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution]]; the first [[woody plant|woody]] ferns and the earliest [[seed plant]]s evolved during this period. By the Middle Devonian, shrub-like forests existed: [[Lycopodiophyta|lycophytes]], [[Equisetales|horsetails]] and [[progymnosperm]]. This [[greening]] event also allowed the diversification of [[arthropod]]s as they took advantage of the new habitat. Near the end of the Devonian, 70% of all species became extinct in a sequence of mass extinction events, collectively known as the [[Late Devonian extinction]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/devonian/devonian.php|title=Devonian|author=University of California|work=University of California|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511155551/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/devonian/devonian.php|archive-date=11 May 2012}}</ref>

====Carboniferous Period====
{{Main|Carboniferous}}
[[File:Proterogyrinus DB.jpg|thumb|239x239px|''[[Proterogyrinus]]'', a Carboniferous amphibian (non-[[amniote]] tetrapod)]]
The Carboniferous spans from 359 million to 299&nbsp;million years ago.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geocraft.com/WVFossils/Carboniferous_climate.html |title=Carboniferous Era|author=Monte Hieb|work=unknown|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220004649/http://www.geocraft.com/WVFossils/Carboniferous_climate.html|archive-date=20 December 2014}}</ref> Tropical [[swamp]]s dominated the Earth, and the large amounts of trees [[carbon sequestration|sequestered]] much of the carbon that became [[coal]] deposits (hence the name Carboniferous and the term "[[coal forest]]"). About 90% of all coal beds were deposited in the Carboniferous and Permian periods, which represent just 2% of the Earth's geologic history.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McGhee |first1=George R. |title=Carboniferous giants and mass extinction : the late Paleozoic Ice Age world |date=2018 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=9780231180979 |pages=98}}</ref> The high [[dioxygen in biological reactions|oxygen]] levels caused by these wetland rainforests allowed arthropods, normally limited in size by [[respiratory system of insects|their respiratory systems]], to proliferate and increase in size. Tetrapods also diversified during the Carboniferous as [[semiaquatic]] [[amphibian]]s such as the [[temnospondyl]]s, and one lineage developed [[extraembryonic membrane]]s that allowed their [[egg]]s to survive outside of the water. These tetrapods, the [[amniotes]], included the first [[sauropsid]]s (which evolved the [[reptile]]s, [[dinosaur]]s and [[bird]]s) and [[synapsid]]s (the ancestors of [[mammals]]). Throughout the Carboniferous, there was a cooling pattern, which eventually led to the glaciation of [[Gondwana]] as much of it was situated around the [[South Pole]]. This event was known as the [[Permo-Carboniferous Glaciation]] and resulted in a major loss of coal forests, known as the [[Carboniferous rainforest collapse]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/carboniferous/carboniferous.php|title=Carboniferous|author=University of California|work=University of California|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210070913/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/carboniferous/carboniferous.php|archive-date=10 February 2012}}</ref>

====Permian Period====
{{Main|Permian}}
[[File:Dimetrodon grandis 3D Model Reconstruction.png|left|thumb|''[[Dimetrodon|Dimetrodon grandis]],'' a synapsid from the early Permian]]
The Permian spans from 299 million to 251&nbsp;million years ago and was the last period of the Paleozoic era. At its beginning, all landmasses came together to form the supercontinent [[Pangaea]], surrounded by one expansive ocean called [[Panthalassa]]. The Earth was relatively dry compared to the Carboniferous, with [[Pangean megamonsoon|harsh seasons]], as the climate of the interior of Pangaea was not moderated by large bodies of water. [[Amniote]]s still flourished and diversified in the new dry climate, particularly [[synapsid]]s such as ''[[Dimetrodon]],'' ''[[Edaphosaurus]]'' and [[therapsid]]s, which gave rise to the ancestors of modern mammals. The first [[conifer]]s evolved during this period, then dominated the terrestrial landscape. The Permian ended with at least one [[mass extinction]], an event sometimes known as "[[Permian–Triassic extinction event|the Great Dying]]", caused by large [[Flood basalt|floods of lava]] (the [[Siberian Traps]] in Russia and the [[Emeishan Traps]] in China). This extinction was the largest in Earth's history and led to the loss of 95% of all species of life.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/life/dinosaurs-other-extinct-creatures/mass-extinctions/end-permian-mass-extinction/|title=The Great Dying|author=Natural History Museum|work=Natural History Museum|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420192109/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/life/dinosaurs-other-extinct-creatures/mass-extinctions/end-permian-mass-extinction/|archive-date=20 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/permian/permian.php|title=Permian Era|author=University of California|work=University of California|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704140229/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/permian/permian.php|archive-date=4 July 2017}}</ref>

===Mesozoic Era===
{{Main|Mesozoic}}
The Mesozoic ranges from 252 million to 66&nbsp;million years ago. Also referred to as the Age of Reptiles, Age of Dinosaurs or Age of Conifers,<ref>{{cite book |title=Gideon Mantell and the Discovery of Dinosaurs |last=Dean |first=Dennis R. |date=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521420488 |pages=97&ndash;98}}</ref> the Mesozoic featured the first time the sauropsids ascended to ecological dominance over the synapsids, as well as the diversification of many modern [[ray-finned fish]], [[insect]]s, [[mollusc]]s (particularly the [[coleoid]]s), tetrapods and plants. The Mesozoic is subdivided into three periods: the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous.

====Triassic Period====
{{Main|Triassic}}
The Triassic ranges from 252 million to 201&nbsp;million years ago. The Triassic is mostly a transitional recovery period between the desolate aftermath of the [[Permian Extinction]] and the lush Jurassic Period. It has three major epochs: [[Early Triassic]], [[Middle Triassic]], and [[Late Triassic]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/604667/Triassic-Period/225842/Economic-significance-of-Triassic-deposits|title=Triassic|author=Alan Logan|encyclopedia=University of New Brunswick|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426165804/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/604667/Triassic-Period/225842/Economic-significance-of-Triassic-deposits|archive-date=26 April 2015}}</ref>

The Early Triassic lasted between 252 million to 247&nbsp;million years ago,<ref name="Ogg-etal-2016">{{cite book |last1=Ogg |first1=James G. |last2=Ogg |first2=Gabi M. |last3=Gradstein |first3=Felix M. |title=A concise geologic time scale 2016 |date=2016 |publisher=Elsevier |location=Amsterdam, Netherlands |isbn=978-0-444-63771-0 |pages=133–149 |chapter=Triassic}}</ref> and was a hot and arid epoch in the aftermath of the Permian Extinction. Many tetrapods during this epoch represented a [[disaster taxon|disaster fauna]], a group of survivor animals with low diversity and cosmopolitanism (wide geographic ranges).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sahney |first1=Sarda |last2=Benton |first2=Michael J |title=Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |date=7 April 2008 |volume=275 |issue=1636 |pages=759–765 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.1370|pmid=18198148 |pmc=2596898 }}</ref> [[Temnospondyli]] recovered first and evolved into large aquatic predators during the Triassic.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Prothero |first1=Donald R. |title=Bringing fossils to life : an introduction to paleobiology |date=2013 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=9780231158930 |edition=Third |pages=504–506}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://palaeos.com/mesozoic/triassic/earlytrias.htm|title=Early Triassic|author=Alan Kazlev|work=unknown|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427233440/http://palaeos.com/mesozoic/triassic/earlytrias.htm|archive-date=27 April 2015}}</ref> Other reptiles also diversified rapidly, with aquatic reptiles such as [[ichthyosaur]]s and [[sauropterygia]]ns proliferating in the seas. On land, the first true [[archosaur]]s appeared, including [[pseudosuchia]]ns (crocodile relatives) and [[avemetatarsalia]]ns (bird/dinosaur relatives).

[[File:Sellosaurus.jpg|thumb|''[[Plateosaurus]]'', an early [[Sauropodomorpha|sauropodomorph]] dinosaur]]
The Middle Triassic spans from 247 million to 237&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name="Ogg-etal-2016"/> The Middle Triassic featured the beginnings of the break-up of [[Pangaea]] as rifting commenced in north Pangaea. The northern part of the [[Tethys Ocean]], the [[Paleo-Tethys Ocean|Paleotethys]] Ocean, had become a passive basin, but a spreading center was active in the southern part of the Tethys Ocean, the Neotethys Ocean.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Torsvik |first1=Trond H. |last2=Cocks |first2=L. Robin M. |title=Earth history and palaeogeography |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |isbn=9781107105324}}</ref> [[Phytoplankton]], coral, [[crustacean]]s and many other marine invertebrates recovered from the Permian extinction by the end of the Middle Triassic.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Zhong-Qiang |last2=Benton |first2=Michael J. |title=The timing and pattern of biotic recovery following the end-Permian mass extinction |journal=Nature Geoscience |date=June 2012 |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=375–383 |doi=10.1038/ngeo1475|bibcode=2012NatGe...5..375C }}</ref> Meanwhile, on land, reptiles continued to diversify, conifer forests flourished,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Looy |first1=C. V. |last2=Brugman |first2=W. A. |last3=Dilcher |first3=D. L. |last4=Visscher |first4=H. |title=The delayed resurgence of equatorial forests after the Permian–Triassic ecologic crisis |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=23 November 1999 |volume=96 |issue=24 |pages=13857–13862 |doi=10.1073/pnas.96.24.13857|pmid=10570163 |pmc=24155 |bibcode=1999PNAS...9613857L |doi-access=free }}</ref> as well as the first flies.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Blagoderov |first1=V. A. |last2=Lukashevich |first2=E. D. |last3=Mostovski |first3=M. B. |editor1-last=Rasnitsyn |editor1-first=A. P. |editor2-last=Quicke |editor2-first=D. L. J. |year=2002 |title=History of Insects |chapter=Order Diptera Linné, 1758. The true flies |publisher=[[Kluwer Academic Publishers]] |isbn=978-1-4020-0026-3 |chapter-url=http://palaeoentomolog.ru/New/diptera.html |access-date=23 April 2021 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224150227/http://palaeoentomolog.ru/New/diptera.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Stubbs2013">{{cite journal |author1=Stubbs, Thomas L. |author2=Pierce, Stephanie E. |author3=Rayfield, Emily J. |author4=Anderson, Philip S. L. |year=2013 |title=Morphological and biomechanical disparity of crocodile-line archosaurs following the end-Triassic extinction |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B |volume=280 |issue=20131940 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2013.1940 |pmid=24026826 |pmc=3779340 |page=20131940 |url=http://research-information.bristol.ac.uk/files/16977877/Stubbs_et_al_2013_early_view_online.pdf |access-date=23 April 2021 |archive-date=8 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608150830/https://research-information.bristol.ac.uk/files/16977877/Stubbs_et_al_2013_early_view_online.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://palaeos.com/mesozoic/triassic/midtrias.html|title=Middle Triassic|author=Rubidge|work=unknown|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429191835/http://palaeos.com/mesozoic/triassic/midtrias.html|archive-date=29 April 2015}}</ref>

The Late Triassic spans from 237 million to 201&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name="Ogg-etal-2016"/> Following the bloom of the Middle Triassic, the Late Triassic was initially warm and arid with a strong [[monsoon]] climate and with most precipitation limited to coastal regions and high latitudes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tanner |first1=Lawrence H. |title=The Late Triassic World |chapter=Climates of the Late Triassic: Perspectives, Proxies and Problems |series=Topics in Geobiology |year=2018 |volume=46 |pages=59–90 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-68009-5_3|isbn=978-3-319-68008-8 }}</ref> This changed late in the [[Carnian]] period with a [[Carnian pluvial episode|2 million years-long wet season]] which transformed the arid continental interior into lush [[alluvial forest]]s. The first true [[dinosaur]]s appeared early in the Late Triassic,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alcober |first1=Oscar |last2=Martínez |first2=Ricardo |title=A new herrerasaurid (Dinosauria, Saurischia) from the Upper Triassic Ischigualasto Formation of northwestern Argentina |journal=ZooKeys |date=19 October 2010 |issue=63 |pages=55–81 |doi=10.3897/zookeys.63.550|pmid=21594020 |pmc=3088398 |bibcode=2010ZooK...63...55A |doi-access=free }}</ref> and [[pterosaur]]s evolved a bit later.<ref name=pterosaur_distribution>{{cite journal|pages=61–107|year=2008|title=Pterosaur distribution in time and space: an atlas|journal=Zitteliana|url=http://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/12007/1/zitteliana_2008_b28_05.pdf|access-date=24 April 2021|archive-date=6 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806150333/https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/12007/1/zitteliana_2008_b28_05.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thenational.ae/world/the-americas/giant-bones-get-archaeologists-rethinking-triassic-dinosaurs-1.748676|title=Giant bones get archaeologists rethinking Triassic dinosaurs|work=The National|access-date=14 August 2018|language=en|archive-date=13 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200913041111/https://www.thenational.ae/world/the-americas/giant-bones-get-archaeologists-rethinking-triassic-dinosaurs-1.748676|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Britt|first1=Brooks B.|last2=Dalla Vecchia|first2=Fabio M.|last3=Chure|first3=Daniel J.|last4=Engelmann|first4=George F.|last5=Whiting|first5=Michael F.|last6=Scheetz|first6=Rodney D.|date=13 August 2018|title=Caelestiventus hanseni gen. et sp. nov. extends the desert-dwelling pterosaur record back 65 million years|journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution|volume=2|issue=9|pages=1386–1392|language=En|doi=10.1038/s41559-018-0627-y|issn=2397-334X|pmid=30104753|bibcode=2018NatEE...2.1386B |s2cid=51984440}}</ref> Other large reptilian competitors to the dinosaurs were wiped out by the [[Triassic–Jurassic extinction event]], in which most [[archosaurs]] (excluding [[crocodylomorph]]s, pterosaurs and dinosaurs), most [[therapsid]]s (except [[cynodont]]s) and almost all large amphibians became extinct, as well as 34% of marine life in the fourth mass extinction event. The cause of the extinction is debated, but likely resulted from eruptions of the [[Central Atlantic magmatic province|CAMP]] [[large igneous province]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kAup0TOL09gC&pg=PA19 |title=Late Triassic Extinction |author1=Graham Ryder |author2=David Fastovsky |author3=Stefan Gartner |name-list-style=amp |isbn=9780813723075 |date=1 January 1996 |publisher=Geological Society of America |access-date=9 November 2016 |archive-date=13 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713001811/https://books.google.com/books?id=kAup0TOL09gC&pg=PA19 |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Jurassic Period====
{{Main|Jurassic}}
[[File:Sericipterus NT.jpg|thumb|''[[Sericipterus]],'' a pterosaur]]
The Jurassic ranges from 201 million to 145&nbsp;million years ago, and features three major epochs: [[Early Jurassic]], [[Middle Jurassic]] and [[Late Jurassic]].<ref name="Carol Marie Tang">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/308541/Jurassic-Period/257903/Major-subdivisions-of-the-Jurassic-System|title=Jurassic Era|author=Carol Marie Tang|encyclopedia=California Academy of Sciences|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506035157/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/308541/Jurassic-Period/257903/Major-subdivisions-of-the-Jurassic-System|archive-date=6 May 2015}}</ref>

The Early Jurassic epoch spans from 201 million to 174&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name="Carol Marie Tang"/> The climate was much more humid than during the Triassic, and as a result, the world was warm and partially tropical,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hallam |first1=A. |year=1982 |chapter=The Jurassic climate |title=Studies in Geophysics: Climate in Earth History |publisher=National Academy Press |location=Washington, DC |pages=159–163 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230888677 |accessdate=26 April 2021 |isbn= 0-309-03329-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Iqbal |first1=Shahid |last2=Wagreich |first2=Michael |last3=U |first3=Jan Urfan |last4=Kuerschner |first4=Wolfram Michael |last5=Gier |first5=Suzanne |last6=Bibi |first6=Mehwish |title=Hot-house climate during the Triassic/Jurassic transition: The evidence of climate change from the southern hemisphere (Salt Range, Pakistan) |journal=Global and Planetary Change |date=1 January 2019 |volume=172 |pages=15–32 |doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2018.09.008|bibcode=2019GPC...172...15I |s2cid=134048967 }}</ref> though possibly with short colder intervals.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Korte |first1=Christoph |last2=Hesselbo |first2=Stephen P. |last3=Ullmann |first3=Clemens V. |last4=Dietl |first4=Gerd |last5=Ruhl |first5=Micha |last6=Schweigert |first6=Günter |last7=Thibault |first7=Nicolas |title=Jurassic climate mode governed by ocean gateway |journal=Nature Communications |date=11 December 2015 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=10015 |doi=10.1038/ncomms10015|pmid=26658694 |pmc=4682040 |bibcode=2015NatCo...610015K |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Plesiosaur]]s, ichthyosaurs and [[ammonite]]s dominated the seas,{{sfn|Torsvik|Cocks|2017|p=217}} while dinosaurs, pterysaurs and other reptiles dominated the land,{{sfn|Torsvik|Cocks|2017|p=217}} with species such as ''[[Dilophosaurus]]'' at the apex.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=Adam D. |last2=Rowe |first2=Timothy B. |title=A comprehensive anatomical and phylogenetic evaluation of Dilophosaurus wetherilli (Dinosauria, Theropoda) with descriptions of new specimens from the Kayenta Formation of northern Arizona |journal=Journal of Paleontology |year=2020 |volume=94 |issue=S78 |pages=1–103 |doi=10.1017/jpa.2020.14|bibcode=2020JPal...94S...1M |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Crocodylomorph]]s evolved into aquatic forms, pushing the remaining large amphibians to near extinction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Foth |first1=Christian |last2=Ezcurra |first2=Martín D. |last3=Sookias |first3=Roland B. |last4=Brusatte |first4=Stephen L. |last5=Butler |first5=Richard J. |title=Unappreciated diversification of stem archosaurs during the Middle Triassic predated the dominance of dinosaurs |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |date=15 September 2016 |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=188 |doi=10.1186/s12862-016-0761-6|pmid=27628503 |pmc=5024528 |bibcode=2016BMCEE..16..188F |doi-access=free }}</ref>{{sfn|Torsvik|Cocks|2017|p=217}} True mammals were present during the Jurassic<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Meng |first1=Jin |last2=Wang |first2=Yuanqing |last3=Li |first3=Chuankui |title=Transitional mammalian middle ear from a new Cretaceous Jehol eutriconodont |journal=Nature |date=April 2011 |volume=472 |issue=7342 |pages=181–185 |doi=10.1038/nature09921|pmid=21490668 |bibcode=2011Natur.472..181M |s2cid=4428972 }}</ref> but remained small, with average body masses of less than {{convert|10|kg||}} until the end of the Cretaceous.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Felisa A. |last2=Boyer |first2=Alison G. |last3=Brown |first3=James H. |last4=Costa |first4=Daniel P. |last5=Dayan |first5=Tamar |last6=Ernest |first6=S. K. Morgan |last7=Evans |first7=Alistair R. |last8=Fortelius |first8=Mikael |last9=Gittleman |first9=John L. |last10=Hamilton |first10=Marcus J. |last11=Harding |first11=Larisa E. |last12=Lintulaakso |first12=Kari |last13=Lyons |first13=S. Kathleen |last14=McCain |first14=Christy |last15=Okie |first15=Jordan G. |last16=Saarinen |first16=Juha J. |last17=Sibly |first17=Richard M. |last18=Stephens |first18=Patrick R. |last19=Theodor |first19=Jessica |last20=Uhen |first20=Mark D. |title=The Evolution of Maximum Body Size of Terrestrial Mammals |journal=Science |date=26 November 2010 |volume=330 |issue=6008 |pages=1216–1219 |doi=10.1126/science.1194830|pmid=21109666 |bibcode=2010Sci...330.1216S |s2cid=17272200 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://palaeos.com/mesozoic/jurassic/earlyjura.html|title=Early Jurassic|author=Alan Kazlev|work=unknown|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601013323/http://palaeos.com/mesozoic/jurassic/earlyjura.html|archive-date=1 June 2015|access-date=27 April 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Stegosaurus armatus by durbed.jpg|left|thumb|''[[Stegosaurus]]'', a large [[ornithischia]]n dinosaur from the Late Jurassic]]
The Middle and Late Jurassic Epochs span from 174 million to 145&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name="Carol Marie Tang" /> Conifer [[savannah]]s made up a large portion of the world's forests.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Skog |first1=Judith E. |last2=Dilcher |first2=David L. |title=Lower vascular plants of the Dakota Formation in Kansas and Nebraska, USA |journal=Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology |date=1 January 1994 |volume=80 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1016/0034-6667(94)90089-2|bibcode=1994RPaPa..80....1S }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Sauropods: Evolution and Paleobiology|last=Rogers|first=Kristina|publisher=Berkeley: U of California|year=2005|doi=10.1525/9780520932333-017|s2cid=242669231}}</ref> In the oceans, plesiosaurs were quite common, and [[ichthyosaur]]s were flourishing.{{sfn|Torsvik|Cocks|2017|pp=217-218}} The Late Jurassic Epoch spans from 163 million to 145&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name="Carol Marie Tang"/> The Late Jurassic featured a severe extinction of [[sauropod]]s in northern continents, alongside many ichthyosaurs. However, the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary did not strongly impact most forms of life.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tennant |first1=Jonathan P. |last2=Mannion |first2=Philip D. |last3=Upchurch |first3=Paul |title=Sea level regulated tetrapod diversity dynamics through the Jurassic/Cretaceous interval |journal=Nature Communications |date=November 2016 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=12737 |doi=10.1038/ncomms12737|pmid=27587285 |pmc=5025807 |bibcode=2016NatCo...712737T |doi-access=free }}</ref>

====Cretaceous Period====
{{Main|Cretaceous}}
The Cretaceous is the Phanerozoic's longest period and the last period of the Mesozoic.  It spans from 145 million to 66&nbsp;million years ago, and is divided into two epochs: [[Early Cretaceous]], and [[Late Cretaceous]].<ref name="Carl Fred Koch">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/142729/Cretaceous-Period/257709/Major-subdivisions-of-the-Cretaceous-System|title=Cretaceous|author=Carl Fred Koch|encyclopedia=Old Dominion University|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150514211348/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/142729/Cretaceous-Period/257709/Major-subdivisions-of-the-Cretaceous-System|archive-date=14 May 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Tylosaurus-proriger.jpg|thumb|294x294px|''[[Tylosaurus]]'', a type of large marine lizards known as [[mosasaur]]s]]
The Early Cretaceous Epoch spans from 145 million to 100&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name="Carl Fred Koch"/> Dinosaurs continued to be abundant, with groups such as [[tyrannosauroid]]s, [[Avialae|avialans]] ([[bird]]s), [[marginocephalia]]ns, and [[ornithopod]]s seeing early glimpses of later success. Other tetrapods, such as [[stegosaur]]s and ichthyosaurs, declined significantly, and sauropods were restricted to southern continents.

The Late Cretaceous Epoch spans from 100 million to 66&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name="Carl Fred Koch"/> The Late Cretaceous featured a cooling trend that would continue into the [[Cenozoic]] Era. Eventually, the tropical climate was restricted to the equator and areas beyond the tropic lines featured more seasonal climates. Dinosaurs still thrived as new species such as ''[[Tyrannosaurus]]'', ''[[Ankylosaurus]]'', ''[[Triceratops]]'' and [[hadrosaurs]] dominated the food web. Whether or not [[pterosaur]]s went into a decline as birds radiated is debated; however, many families survived until the end of the Cretaceous, alongside new forms such as the gigantic ''[[Quetzalcoatlus]]''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://blog.everythingdinosaur.co.uk/blog/_archives/2018/03/15/pterosaurs-more-diverse-at-the-end-of-the-cretaceous-than-previously-thought.html|title=Pterosaurs More Diverse at the End of the Cretaceous than Previously Thought|work=Everything Dinosaur Blog|access-date=14 August 2018|language=en-US|archive-date=27 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927102331/https://blog.everythingdinosaur.co.uk/blog/_archives/2018/03/15/pterosaurs-more-diverse-at-the-end-of-the-cretaceous-than-previously-thought.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Mammals diversified despite their small sizes, with [[metatheria]]ns ([[marsupial]]s and kin) and [[eutheria]]ns ([[Placentalia|placentals]] and kin) coming into their own. In the oceans, [[mosasaurs]] diversified to fill the role of the now-extinct ichthyosaurs, alongside huge plesiosaurs such as ''[[Elasmosaurus]]''. Also, the first flowering plants evolved. At the end of the Cretaceous, the [[Deccan Traps]] and other volcanic eruptions were poisoning the atmosphere. As this was continued, it is thought that a large [[meteor]] smashed into Earth, creating the [[Chicxulub Crater]] and causing the event known as the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event|K–Pg extinction]], the fifth and most recent mass extinction event, during which 75% of life on Earth became extinct, including all non-avian dinosaurs. Every living thing with a body mass over 10 kilograms became extinct, and the Age of Dinosaurs came to an end.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mesozoic/cretaceous/cretaceous.php|title=Cretaceous|author=University of California|work=University of California|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170611021416/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mesozoic/cretaceous/cretaceous.php|archive-date=11 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.universetoday.com/36697/the-asteroid-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/|title=K-T Extinction event|author=Elizabeth Howell|work=Universe Today|date=3 February 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505160632/http://www.universetoday.com/36697/the-asteroid-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/|archive-date=5 May 2015}}</ref>

===Cenozoic Era===
{{Main|Cenozoic}}
The Cenozoic featured the rise of mammals and birds as the dominant class of animals, as the end of the Age of Dinosaurs left significant open [[ecological niche|niche]]s. There are three divisions of the Cenozoic: Paleogene, Neogene and Quaternary.

====Paleogene Period====
{{Main|Paleogene}}
The Paleogene spans from the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs, some 66 million years ago, to the dawn of the Neogene 23&nbsp;million years ago. It features three [[epoch (geology)|epoch]]s: [[Paleocene]], [[Eocene]] and [[Oligocene]].
[[File:Basilosaurus cetoides.png|thumb|''[[Basilosaurus]]'' was an early cetacean, related to modern whales]]
The Paleocene Epoch began with the K–Pg extinction event, and the early part of the Paleocene saw the recovery of the Earth from that event. The continents began to take their modern shapes, but most continents (and India) remained separated from each other: Africa and [[Eurasia]] were separated by the [[Tethys Sea]], and the [[Americas]] were separated by the [[Panamanic Seaway]] (as the [[Isthmus of Panama]] had not yet formed). This epoch featured a general warming trend that peaked at the [[Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum]], and the earliest modern [[jungle]]s expanded, eventually reaching the poles. The oceans were dominated by sharks, as the large reptiles that had once ruled had become extinct. Mammals diversified rapidly, but most remained small. The largest tetrapod carnivores during the Paleocene were reptiles, including [[crocodyliform]]s, [[choristodera]]ns and [[snake]]s. ''[[Titanoboa]]'', the largest known snake, lived in South America during the Paleocene.

The Eocene Epoch ranged from 56 million to 34&nbsp;million years ago. In the early Eocene, most land mammals were small and living in cramped jungles, much like the Paleocene. Among them were early [[primate]]s, [[whale]]s and [[horse]]s along with many other early forms of mammals. The climate was warm and humid, with little temperature gradient from pole to pole. In the Middle Eocene Epoch, the [[Antarctic Circumpolar Current]] formed when South America and Australia both separated from Antarctica to open up the [[Drake Passage]] and [[Tasmanian Passage]], disrupting ocean currents worldwide, resulting in global cooling and causing the jungles to shrink. More modern forms of mammals continued to diversify with the cooling climate even as more archaic forms died out. By the end of the Eocene, whales such as ''[[Basilosaurus]]'' had become fully aquatic. The late Eocene Epoch saw the rebirth of seasons, which caused the expansion of savanna-like areas with the earliest substantial [[grassland]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/tertiary/eocene.php|title=Eocene Climate|author=University of California|work=University of California|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420031850/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/tertiary/eocene.php|archive-date=20 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/prehistoric-world/paleogene/|title=Eocene|author=National Geographic Society|work=National Geographic|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508115651/http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/prehistoric-world/paleogene|archive-date=8 May 2015}}</ref> At the transition between the Eocene and Oligocene epochs there was a significant [[Eocene–Oligocene extinction event|extinction event]], the cause of which is debated.

The Oligocene Epoch spans from 34 million to 23&nbsp;million years ago. The Oligocene was an important transitional period between the tropical world of the Eocene and more modern ecosystems. This period featured a global expansion of grass which led to many new species taking advantage, including the first [[elephant]]s, [[Felidae|felines]], [[Canidae|canines]], [[marsupial]]s and many other species still prevalent today. Many other species of plants evolved during this epoch also, such as the evergreen trees. The long term cooling continued and seasonal rain patterns established. Mammals continued to grow larger. ''[[Paraceratherium]]'', one of the largest land mammals to ever live, evolved during this epoch, along with many other [[perissodactyl]]s.

====Neogene Period====
{{Main|Neogene}}
The Neogene spans from 23.03&nbsp;million to 2.58&nbsp;million years ago. It features two epochs: the [[Miocene]] and the [[Pliocene]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/408872/Neogene-Period|title=Neogene|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502193553/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/408872/Neogene-Period|archive-date=2 May 2015}}</ref>

The Miocene spans from 23.03&nbsp;million to 5.333&nbsp;million years ago and is a period in which [[grass]] spread further across, effectively dominating a large portion of the world, diminishing forests in the process. [[Kelp forest]]s evolved, leading to the evolution of new species such as [[sea otter]]s. During this time, [[perissodactyl]]s thrived, and evolved into many different varieties. Alongside them were the [[ape]]s, which evolved into 30 species. Overall, arid and mountainous land dominated most of the world, as did grazers. The Tethys Sea finally closed with the creation of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] and in its wake left the [[Black Sea|Black]], [[Red Sea|Red]], [[Mediterranean]] and [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] seas. This only increased aridity. Many new plants evolved, and 95% of modern [[seed plant]]s evolved in the mid-Miocene.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/tertiary/miocene.php|title=Miocene|author=University of California|work=University of California|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504035928/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/tertiary/miocene.php|archive-date=4 May 2015}}</ref>

The Pliocene lasted from 5.333&nbsp;million to 2.58&nbsp;million years ago. The Pliocene featured dramatic climatic changes, which ultimately led to modern species and plants. The Mediterranean Sea dried up for hundreds of thousand years in the [[Messinian salinity crisis]]. Along with these major geological events, Africa saw the appearance of ''[[Australopithecus]]'', the ancestor of ''[[Homo]]''. The Isthmus of Panama formed, and [[Great American Interchange|animals migrated]] between North and South America, wreaking havoc on the local ecology. Climatic changes brought savannas that are still continuing to spread across the world, [[Indian monsoon]]s, deserts in East Asia, and the beginnings of the [[Sahara Desert]]. The Earth's continents and seas moved into their present shapes. The world map has not changed much since, save for changes brought about by the [[Quaternary glaciation]] such as [[Lake Agassiz]] (precursor of the [[Great Lakes]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/tertiary/pliocene.php|title=Pliocene|author=University of California|work=University of California|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429052833/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/tertiary/pliocene.php|archive-date=29 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.esd.ornl.gov/projects/qen/pliocene.html|title=Pliocene climate|author=Jonathan Adams|work=Oak Ridge National Library|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225011508/http://www.esd.ornl.gov/projects/qen/pliocene.html|archive-date=25 February 2015}}</ref>

====Quaternary Period====
{{Main|Quaternary}}
[[File:Ice age fauna of northern Spain - Mauricio Antón.jpg|thumb|Megafauna of the Pleistocene ([[mammoth]]s, [[Panthera leo spelaea|cave lions]], [[woolly rhino]]s, [[reindeer]], [[Wild horse|horse]]s)]]
The Quaternary spans from 2.58&nbsp;million years ago to present day, and is the shortest geological period in the [[Phanerozoic Eon]]. It features modern animals, and dramatic changes in the climate. It is divided into two epochs: the [[Pleistocene]] and the [[Holocene]].

The Pleistocene lasted from 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago. This epoch was marked by a series of [[glacial period]]s ([[ice age]]s) as a result of the cooling trend that started in the mid-Eocene. There were numerous separate glaciation periods marked by the advance of ice caps as far south as 40 degrees N latitude in mountainous areas. Meanwhile, Africa experienced a trend of desiccation which resulted in the creation of the Sahara, [[Namib]] and [[Kalahari]] deserts. [[Mammoth]]s, [[giant ground sloths]], [[dire wolves]], [[sabre-toothed cat]]s and [[archaic humans]] such as ''[[Homo erectus]]'' were common and widespread during the Pleistocene. A more [[anatomically modern human]], ''[[Homo sapiens]]'', began [[early human migrations|migrating]] [[recent African origin of modern humans|out of East Africa]] in at least two waves, the first being as early as 270,000 years ago. After [[Toba catastrophe theory|a supervolcano eruption in Sumatra]] 74,000 years ago caused a global [[population bottleneck]] of humans, [[Southern Dispersal|a second wave of ''Homo sapiens '' migration]] successfully repopulated every continent except Antarctica. As the Pleistocene drew to a close, [[Quaternary extinction event|a major extinction]] wiped out much of the world's [[megafauna]], including non-''Homo sapiens'' human species such as ''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]'' and ''[[Homo floresiensis]]''. All the continents were affected, but Africa was impacted to a lesser extent and retained many large animals such as elephants, [[rhinoceros]] and [[hippopotamus]]. The extent to which ''Homo sapiens'' were involved in this megafaunal extinction is debated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/quaternary/pleistocene.php|title=Pleistocene|author=University of California|work=University of California|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824111711/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/quaternary/pleistocene.php|archive-date=24 August 2014|access-date=27 April 2015}}</ref>

The Holocene began 11,700 years ago at the end of [[Younger Dryas]] and lasts until the present day. All [[recorded history]] and so-called "[[human history]]" lies within the boundaries of the Holocene epoch.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/quaternary/holocene.php|title=Holocene|author=University of California|work=University of California|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502160331/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/quaternary/holocene.php|archive-date=2 May 2015}}</ref> Human activity is blamed for [[Holocene extinction|an ongoing mass extinction]] that began roughly 10,000 years ago, though the species becoming extinct have only been recorded since the [[Industrial Revolution]]. This is sometimes referred to as the "[[Sixth Extinction]]" with hundreds of species gone extinct due to human activities such as [[overhunting]], [[habitat destruction]] and introduction of [[invasive species]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-or-fiction-the-sixth-mass-extinction-can-be-stopped/|title=Sixth Extinction extinctions|work=Scientific American|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727234806/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-or-fiction-the-sixth-mass-extinction-can-be-stopped/|archive-date=27 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iucn.org/?4143/Extinction-crisis-continues-apace|title=Sixth Extinction|author=IUCN|work=IUCN|date=3 November 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729102308/http://iucn.org/?4143%2FExtinction-crisis-continues-apace|archive-date=29 July 2012}}</ref>