Editing Personality psychology (section)

=== Type and trait theories ===
[[File:20220822 Distinguishing introversion and extraversion (extroversion) - comparison chart.svg|thumb |upright=1.5 |Behavioral and psychological characteristics distinguishing introversion and extraversion, which are generally conceived as lying along a continuum]]
[[Personality type]] refers to the psychological classification of people into different classes. Personality types are distinguished from [[trait theory|personality traits]], which come in different degrees. For example, according to type theories, there are two types of people, introverts and extroverts. According to trait theories, introversion and extroversion are part of a continuous dimension with many people in the middle.

Personality is complex; a typical theory of personality contains several propositions or sub-theories, often growing over time as more psychologists explore the theory.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cartwright |first1=Desmond |title=Theories and Models of Personality |date=1979 |publisher=Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers |location=Debuque, Iowa |isbn=978-0-697-06624-4 |page=178 |edition=I }}</ref>

The most widely accepted empirical model of durable, universal personality descriptors is the system of [[Big Five personality traits]]: [[conscientiousness]], [[agreeableness]], [[neuroticism]], [[openness to experience]], and [[Extraversion and introversion|extraversion-introversion]]. It is based on [[cluster analysis]] of verbal descriptions in self-reporting surveys. These traits demonstrate considerable [[Genomics of personality traits|genetic heritability]].

Perhaps the most ancient attempt at personality psychology is the [[Buddhist personality types|personality typology]] outlined by the Indian [[Buddhist]] [[Abhidharma]] schools. This typology mostly focuses on negative personal traits (greed, hatred, and delusion) and the corresponding positive [[meditation]] practices used to counter those traits.

An influential European tradition of psychological types originated in the theoretical work of [[Carl Jung]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Sharp |first=Daryl |title= Personality types: Jung's model of typology |year=1987 |publisher=Inner City Books |location= Toronto, Canada |isbn= 978-0919123304|page=128}}</ref> specifically in his 1921 book ''Psychologische Typen'' (''[[Psychological Types]]'') and [[William Moulton Marston|William Marston]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Bradberry|first=T|title=Self-Awareness|year=2009|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-1101148679}}</ref>

Building on the writings and observations of Jung during World War II, [[Isabel Briggs Myers]] and her mother, Katharine C. Briggs, delineated personality types by constructing the [[Myers–Briggs Type Indicator]].<ref name=Myers>{{cite book |author=Myers, Isabel Briggs with Peter B. Myers|title=Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Type |publisher=Davies-Black Publishing |location=Mountain View, California |orig-year=1980|year=1995 |isbn=978-0-89106-074-1 }}</ref><ref name="Stein2019">{{cite journal |last1=Stein |first1=Randy |last2=Swan |first2=Alexander B. |title=Evaluating the validity of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator theory: A teaching tool and window into intuitive psychology |journal=Social and Personality Psychology Compass |date=February 2019 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=e12434 |doi=10.1111/spc3.12434|s2cid=150132771 }}</ref>  This model was later used by [[David Keirsey]] with a different understanding from Jung, Briggs and Myers.<ref name=K123123123123123>{{cite book |date= May 1, 1998 |title=Please Understand Me II: Temperament, Character, Intelligence |url= https://archive.org/details/pleaseunderstand02keir |url-access= registration |publisher=Prometheus Nemesis Book Co|edition=1st |isbn=978-1-885705-02-0}}</ref>

In the former Soviet Union, [[Lithuanian people|Lithuanian]] [[Aušra Augustinavičiūtė]] independently derived a model of personality type from Jung's called [[socionics]]. Later on many other tests were developed on this model e.g. Golden, PTI-Pro and JTI.

Theories could also be considered an "approach" to personality or psychology and is generally referred to as a model.  The model is an older and more theoretical approach to personality, accepting extroversion and introversion as basic psychological orientations in connection with two pairs of psychological functions:

* ''Perceiving functions:'' sensing and intuition (trust in concrete, sensory-oriented facts vs. trust in abstract concepts and imagined possibilities)
* ''Judging functions:'' thinking and feeling (basing decisions primarily on logic vs. deciding based on emotion).

Briggs and Myers also added another personality dimension to their type indicator to measure whether a person prefers to use a judging or perceiving function when interacting with the external world.  Therefore, they included questions designed to indicate whether someone wishes to come to conclusions (judgement) or to keep options open (perception).<ref name=Myers/>

This personality typology has some aspects of a trait theory: it explains people's behavior in terms of opposite fixed characteristics.  In these more traditional models, the sensing/intuition preference is considered the most basic, dividing people into "N" (intuitive) or "S" (sensing) personality types. An "N" is further assumed to be guided either by thinking or feeling and divided into the "NT" (scientist, engineer) or "NF" (author, humanitarian) temperament. An "S", in contrast, is assumed to be guided more by the judgment/perception axis and thus divided into the "SJ" (guardian, traditionalist) or "SP" (performer, artisan) temperament.<!-- remark out undefined <ref name=Keirsey/> --> These four are considered basic, with the other two factors in each case (including always extraversion/introversion) less important. Critics of this traditional view have observed that the types can be quite strongly stereotyped by professions (although neither Myers nor Keirsey engaged in such stereotyping in their type descriptions),<ref name=Myers/><!-- remark out undefined ref <ref name=Keirsey/> --> and thus may arise more from the need to categorize people for purposes of guiding their career choice.<ref name=Pittenger>{{cite journal | last = Pittenger | first = David J. | title = Measuring the MBTI. . .And Coming Up Short | journal = Journal of Career Planning and Employment | volume = 54 | issue = 1 | pages = 48–52 | date = November 1993 | url = http://www.indiana.edu/~jobtalk/HRMWebsite/hrm/articles/develop/mbti.pdf | access-date = 2008-12-25 | archive-date = 2006-12-06 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061206025148/http://www.indiana.edu/~jobtalk/HRMWebsite/hrm/articles/develop/mbti.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref>  This among other objections led to the emergence of the five-factor view, which is less concerned with behavior under work conditions and more concerned with behavior in personal and emotional circumstances.  (The MBTI is not designed to measure the "work self", but rather what Myers and McCaulley called the "shoes-off self."<ref name=manual_2>{{cite book|last=Myers|first=Isabel Briggs|author2=Mary H. McCaulley|title=Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator|publisher=Consulting Psychologists Press|location=Palo Alto, California|year=1985|edition=2nd|page=[https://archive.org/details/manualguidetode00myer/page/8 8]|isbn=978-0-89106-027-7|url=https://archive.org/details/manualguidetode00myer/page/8}}</ref>)

[[Type A and Type B personality theory]]:  During the 1950s, [[Meyer Friedman]] and his co-workers defined what they called Type A and Type B behavior patterns. They theorized that intense, hard-driving Type A personalities had a higher risk of coronary disease because they are "stress junkies." Type B people, on the other hand, tended to be relaxed, less competitive, and lower in risk. There was also a Type AB mixed profile.

Health Psychology, a field of study, has been influenced by the Type A and Type B personality theories, which reveal how personality traits can impact cardiovascular health. Type A individuals, known for their competitiveness and urgency, may increase the risk of conditions like high blood pressure and coronary heart disease.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.structural-learning.com/post/type-a-and-type-b-personality-theory |title=Personality Theory Type A type B |access-date=29 April 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

Day and Jreige (2002) investigate the Type A behavior pattern as a mediator in the relationship between job stressors and psychosocial outcomes. Their study, published in the Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, demonstrates that individuals exhibiting Type A characteristics are more susceptible to adverse psychosocial effects, such as increased stress and lower job satisfaction, when exposed to workplace stressors. This research highlights the importance of considering personality traits in managing occupational health.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Day |first=A |last2=Jreige |first2=S |year=2002 |title=Examining Type A behavior pattern to explain the relationship between job stressors and psychosocial outcomes |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F1076-8998.7.2.109 |journal=Journal of Occupational Health Psychology |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=109-120 |doi=10.1037/1076-8998.7.2.109 |accessdate=2024-06-08}}</ref>

[[Eduard Spranger]]'s personality-model, consisting of six (or, by some revisions, 6 +1) basic types of ''value attitudes'', described in his book ''Types of Men'' (''Lebensformen''; Halle (Saale): Niemeyer, 1914; English translation by P. J. W. Pigors - New York: G. E. Stechert Company, 1928).

The [[Enneagram of Personality]], a model of human personality which is principally used as a typology of nine interconnected personality types. It has been criticized as being subject to interpretation, making it difficult to test or validate scientifically.

[[John L. Holland]]'s ''RIASEC'' vocational model, commonly referred to as the ''[[Holland Codes]]'', focuses specifically on choice of occupation. It proposes that six personality types lead people to choose their career paths. In this circumplex model, the six types are represented as a hexagon, with adjacent types more closely related than those more distant. The model is widely used in vocational counseling.