Editing Paul the Apostle (section)

==Biography==
=== Early life ===
[[File:Broad overview of geography relevant to paul of tarsus.png|thumb|upright=1|Geography relevant to Paul's life, stretching from [[Early centers of Christianity#Jerusalem|Jerusalem]] to [[Early centers of Christianity#Rome|Rome]]]]
The two main sources of information that give access to the earliest segments of Paul's career are the Acts of the Apostles and the autobiographical elements of Paul's letters to the early Christian communities.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|pp=19–20}} Paul was likely born between the years of 5 BC and 5 AD.{{sfn|White|2007|pp=145–47}} The Acts of the Apostles indicates that Paul was a Roman citizen by birth, but [[Helmut Koester]] took issue with the evidence presented by the text.{{sfn|Koester|2000|p=107}}<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|16:37}},{{Bibleverse|Acts|22:25–29}}</ref> Some have suggested that Paul's ancestors may have been freedmen from among the thousands of Jews whom [[Pompey]] took as slaves [[Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)|in 63 BC]], which would explain how he was born into [[Roman citizenship]], as slaves of Roman citizens gained citizenship upon emancipation.<ref>John B. Polhill, 532; cf. Richard R. Losch, ''The Uttermost Part of the Earth: A Guide to Places in the Bible'' (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2005), 176–77.</ref>

He was from a devout Jewish family{{sfn|Wright|1974|p=404}} based in the city of [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]], which had been made part of the [[Roman province of Syria|Roman Province of Syria]] by the time of Paul's adulthood.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-22 |title=Saint Paul the Apostle {{!}} Biography & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Paul-the-Apostle#:~:text=Paul%20was%20a%20Greek-speaking,in%20his%20life%20and%20letters. |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Tarsus was one of the larger centers of trade on the Mediterranean coast and renowned for its  [[academy]]. It had been among the most influential cities in [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]] since the time of [[Alexander the Great]], who died in 323 BC.{{sfn|Wright|1974|p=404}}

Paul referred to himself as being "of the stock of Israel, of the [[tribe of Benjamin]], a Hebrew of the Hebrews; as touching the law, a [[Pharisees|Pharisee]]".<ref>{{Bibleverse|Philippians|3:5}}</ref>{{sfn|Dunn|2003|pp=21–22}} The Bible reveals very little about Paul's family. Acts quotes Paul referring to his family by saying he was "a Pharisee, born of Pharisees".<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|23:6}}</ref>{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=22}} Paul's nephew, his sister's son, is mentioned in Acts 23:16.<ref name="auto1">{{Bibleverse|Acts|23:16}}</ref>

The family had a history of religious piety.<ref>{{Bibleverse|2 Timothy|1:3}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name="disputed"|1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus may be "Trito-Pauline", meaning they may have been written by members of the Pauline school a generation after his death.}} Apparently, the family lineage had been very attached to [[Pharisees#Practices|Pharisaic traditions]] and observances for generations.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Philippians|3:5–6}}</ref> Acts says that he was an artisan involved in the leather crafting or tent-making profession.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|18:1–3}}</ref>{{sfn|Dunn|2003|pp=41–42}} This was to become an initial connection with [[Priscilla and Aquila]], with whom he would partner in tentmaking<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|18:3}}</ref> and later become very important teammates as fellow missionaries.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|16:4}}</ref>

While he was still fairly young, he was sent to Jerusalem to receive his education at the school of [[Gamaliel]],<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|22:3}}</ref>{{sfn|Dunn|2003|pp=21–22}} one of the most noted teachers of [[Halakha|Jewish law]] in history. Although modern scholarship accepts that Paul was educated under the supervision of Gamaliel in Jerusalem,{{sfn|Dunn|2003|pp=21–22}} he was not preparing to become a scholar of Jewish law, and probably never had any contact with the [[Hillel the Elder|Hillelite]] school.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|pp=21–22}} Some of his family may have resided in Jerusalem since later the son of one of his sisters saved his life there.<ref name="auto1"/>{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=21}} Nothing more is known of his biography until he takes an active part in the martyrdom of [[Saint Stephen|Stephen]],<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|7:58–60; 22:20}}</ref> a Hellenised diaspora Jew.{{sfn|Dunn|2009|pp=242–44}}

Some modern scholarship argues that while Paul was fluent in [[Koine Greek]], the language he used to write his letters, his first language was probably [[Aramaic]].{{sfn|Bruce|2000|p=43}} In his letters, Paul drew heavily on his knowledge of [[Stoicism|Stoic philosophy]], using Stoic terms and metaphors to assist his new Gentile converts in their understanding of the Gospel and to explain his Christology.{{sfn|Lee|2006|pp=13–26}}{{sfn|Kee|1983|p=208}}

===Persecutor of early Christians===
[[File:Conversion on the Way to Damascus-Caravaggio (c.1600-1).jpg|thumb|upright=1|''[[Conversion on the Way to Damascus]]'', a 1601 portrait by [[Caravaggio]]]]
Paul says that before [[Conversion of Paul the Apostle|his conversion]],<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|1:13–14}}, {{Bibleverse|Philippians|3:6}}, {{Bibleverse|Acts|8:1–3}}</ref> he persecuted early Christians "beyond measure", more specifically Hellenised diaspora Jewish members who had returned to the area of [[Early centers of Christianity#Jerusalem|Jerusalem]].{{sfn|Dunn|2009|pp=246–47, 277}}{{refn|group=note|name="persecution"|Acts 8:1 "at Jerusalem"; Acts 9:13 "at Jerusalem"; Acts 9:21 "in Jerusalem"; Acts 26:10 "in Jerusalem". In Galatians 1:13, Paul states that he "persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it," but does not specify where he persecuted the church. In Galatians 1:22 he states that more than three years after his conversion he was "still unknown by sight to the churches of Judea that are in Christ," seemingly ruling out Jerusalem as the place he had persecuted Christians.<ref name="dalemartin">{{Cite web |title=Introduction to the New Testament History and Literature – 5. The New Testament as History |url=http://oyc.yale.edu/religious-studies/rlst-152/lecture-5 |website=Open Yale Courses |publisher=Yale University |year=2009 |first=Dale B. |last=Martin}}</ref>}} According to [[James Dunn (theologian)|James Dunn]], the Jerusalem community consisted of "Hebrews", Jews speaking both Aramaic and Greek, and "Hellenists", Jews speaking only Greek, possibly diaspora Jews who had resettled in Jerusalem.{{sfn|Dunn|2009|pp=246–47}} Paul's initial persecution of Christians probably was directed against these Greek-speaking "Hellenists" due to their anti-Temple attitude.{{sfn|Dunn|2009|p=277}} Within the early Jewish Christian community, this also set them apart from the "Hebrews" and their continuing participation in the Temple cult.{{sfn|Dunn|2009|p=277}}

===Conversion===
{{Main|Conversion of Paul the Apostle}}
[[File:Júnior, José Ferraz de Almeida - A Conversão de São Paulo a Caminho de Damasco, Acervo do Museu Paulista da USP.jpg|thumb|upright=1|''The Conversion of Saint Paul on the Way to Damascus'', a {{circa|1889|lk=no}} portrait by [[José Ferraz de Almeida Júnior]]]]
[[Conversion of Paul the Apostle|Paul's conversion]] to the movement of followers of Jesus can be dated to 31–36 AD{{sfn|Bromiley|1979|p=689}}{{sfn|Barnett|2002|p=21}}{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|p=200}} by his reference to it in one of his [[Pauline epistles|letters]]. In Galatians 1:16, Paul writes that God "was pleased to reveal his son to me."<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|1:16|ESV}}</ref> In 1 Corinthians 15:8, as he lists the order in which Jesus appeared to his disciples after his resurrection, Paul writes, "last of all, as to one untimely born, He appeared to me also."<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|15:8|NASB}}</ref>

According to the account in the Acts of the Apostles, it took place on the road to [[Damascus]], where he reported having experienced a [[Vision (spirituality)|vision]] of the ascended Jesus. The account says that "He fell to the ground and heard a voice saying to him, 'Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me?' He asked, 'Who are you, Lord?' The reply came, 'I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting'."<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts |9:4–5}}</ref>

According to the account in Acts 9:1–22, he was blinded for three days and had to be led into Damascus by the hand.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|9:1–22|9}}</ref> During these three days, Saul took no food or water and spent his time in prayer to God. When [[Ananias of Damascus]] arrived, he laid his hands on him and said: "Brother Saul, the Lord, ''[even]'' Jesus, that appeared unto thee in the way as thou camest, hath sent me, that thou mightest receive thy sight, and be filled with the Holy Ghost."<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|9:17}}</ref> His sight was restored, he got up and was baptized.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|9:18}}</ref> This story occurs only in Acts, not in the Pauline epistles.{{sfn|Aslan|2014|p=184}}

The author of the Acts of the Apostles may have learned of Paul's conversion from the [[Apostolic Age#Apostolic Church in Jerusalem|church in Jerusalem]], or from the [[Early centers of Christianity#Antioch|church in Antioch]], or possibly from Paul himself.{{sfn|McRay|2007|p=66}}

According to Timo Eskola, early Christian theology and discourse was influenced by the Jewish [[Merkabah mysticism|Merkabah]] tradition.{{sfn|Eskola|2001}}  [[John Bowker (theologian)|John Bowker]], [[Alan F. Segal|Alan Segal]] and [[Daniel Boyarin]] have variously argued that Paul's accounts of his conversion experience and his ascent to the heavens (in [[2 Corinthians 12]]) are the earliest first-person accounts that are extant of a Merkabah mystic in Jewish or Christian literature.{{sfn|Churchill|2010|pp=4,16-17,22-23}} Conversely, Timothy Churchill has argued that Paul's Damascus road encounter does not fit the pattern of Merkabah.{{sfn|Churchill|2010|pp=250ff.}}

=== Post-conversion ===
According to [[Acts 9|Acts]]:
{{Blockquote|And immediately he proclaimed Jesus in the synagogues, saying, "He is the Son of God." And all who heard him were amazed and said, "Is not this the man who made havoc in Jerusalem of those who called upon this name? And has he not come here for this purpose, to bring them bound before the chief priests?" But Saul increased all the more in strength, and confounded the Jews who lived in Damascus by proving that Jesus was the Christ.|Acts 9:20–22<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|9:20–22}}</ref>}}

=== Early ministry ===
[[File:Ananias house.jpg|thumb|upright=1|What is believed to be the house of [[Ananias of Damascus]] in [[Damascus]]]]
[[File:Damascus-Bab Kisan.jpg|thumb|upright=1|[[Bab Kisan]], believed to be where Paul escaped from persecution in Damascus]]
After his conversion, Paul went to [[Early centers of Christianity#Damascus|Damascus]], where [[Acts 9]] states he was healed of his blindness and [[Baptism|baptized]] by Ananias of Damascus.{{sfn|Hengel|1997|p=43}} Paul says that it was in Damascus that he barely escaped death.<ref>{{Bibleverse|2 Corinthians|11:32}}</ref> Paul also says that he then went first to Arabia, and then came back to Damascus.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|1:17}}</ref>{{sfn|Lake|1911|pp=320–23}} Paul's trip to Arabia is not mentioned anywhere else in the Bible, although it has been theorized that he traveled to [[Mount Sinai]] for meditations in the desert.{{sfn|Wright|1996|pp=683–92}}{{sfn|Hengel|2002|pp=47–66}} He describes in [[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]] how three years after his conversion he went to [[Early centers of Christianity#Jerusalem|Jerusalem]]. There he met [[James, brother of Jesus|James]] and stayed with [[Saint Peter|Simon Peter]] for 15 days<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|1:13–24}}</ref> starting around 35 or 36 AD.<ref>{{cite book | last =Ehrman | first =Bart | year =2012 | title =Did Jesus Exist?: The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth | publisher =HarperOne | isbn =9780062206442 |page=144-146}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Longenecker |editor1-first=Bruce |title=The New Cambridge Companion to St. Paul |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1108438285 |page=23}}</ref> Paul located Mount Sinai in Arabia in Galatians 4:24–25.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|4:24–25}}</ref>

Paul asserted that he received the [[Gospel]] not from man, but directly by "the revelation of Jesus Christ".<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|1:11–16}}</ref> He claimed almost total independence from the Jerusalem community{{sfn|Harris|2003|p=517}} (possibly in the [[Cenacle]]), but agreed with it on the nature and content of the gospel.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|1:22–24}}</ref> He appeared eager to bring material support to Jerusalem from the various growing [[Gentile]] churches that he started. In his writings, Paul used the [[Persecution of Christians in the New Testament#Examples of persecution in the Acts of the Apostles|persecutions]] he endured to avow proximity and union with Jesus and as a validation of his teaching.

Paul's narrative in Galatians states that 14 years after his conversion he went again to Jerusalem.<ref name="Bibleref2|Gal.|2:1–10">{{Bibleverse|Galatians|2:1–10}}</ref> It is not known what happened during this time, but both Acts and Galatians provide some details.{{sfn|Barnett|2005|p=200}}  At the end of this time, [[Barnabas]] went to find Paul and brought him to [[Early centers of Christianity#Antioch|Antioch]].{{sfn|Dunn|2009|p=369}}<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|11:26}}</ref> The Christian community at Antioch had been established by Hellenised diaspora Jews living in Jerusalem, who played an important role in reaching a Gentile, Greek audience, notably at Antioch, which had a large Jewish community and significant numbers of Gentile "God-fearers."{{sfn|Dunn|2009|p=297}} From Antioch the mission to the Gentiles started, which would fundamentally change the character of the early Christian movement, eventually turning it into a new, Gentile religion.{{sfn|Dunn|2009}}

When a famine occurred in [[Judea]], around 45–46,{{sfn|Ogg|1962}} Paul and Barnabas journeyed to Jerusalem to deliver financial support from the Antioch community.{{sfn|Barnett|2005|p=83}} According to Acts, Antioch had become an alternative center for Christians following the dispersion of the believers after the death of [[Saint Stephen|Stephen]]. It was in Antioch that the followers of Jesus were first called "Christians".<ref>[[Acts 11:26]]</ref>

=== First missionary journey ===
[[File:Map missionary journeys stpaul knecht.png|thumb|upright=1|Map of St. Paul's missionary journeys]]
The author of Acts arranges Paul's travels into three separate journeys. The first journey,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|13–14}}</ref> for which Paul and Barnabas were commissioned by the Antioch community,{{sfn|Dunn|2009|p=370}} and led initially by Barnabas,{{refn|group=note|The only indication as to who is leading is in the order of names. At first, the two are referred to as Barnabas and Paul, in that order. Later in the same chapter, the team is referred to as Paul and his companions.}} took Barnabas and Paul from Antioch to Cyprus then into southern Asia Minor, and finally returning to Antioch. In Cyprus, Paul rebukes and blinds [[Elymas]] the magician<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|13:8–12}}</ref> who was criticizing their teachings.

They sailed to [[Perga]] in [[Pamphylia]]. [[John Mark]] left them and returned to Jerusalem. Paul and Barnabas went on to [[Antioch of Pisidia|Pisidian Antioch]]. On [[Shabbat|Sabbath]] they went to the synagogue. The leaders invited them to speak. Paul reviewed Israelite history from life in Egypt to King David. He introduced Jesus as a descendant of David brought to Israel by God. He said that his group had come to bring the message of salvation. He recounted the story of Jesus' death and resurrection. He quoted from the [[Septuagint]]<ref name="JewEnc:Saul of Tarsus" /> to assert that Jesus was the promised Christos who brought them forgiveness for their sins. Both the Jews and the "[[God-fearer|God-fearing]]" Gentiles invited them to talk more next Sabbath. At that time almost the whole city gathered. This upset some influential Jews who spoke against them. Paul used the occasion to announce a change in his mission which from then on would be to the Gentiles.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|13:13–48}}</ref>

Antioch served as a major Christian home base for Paul's early missionary activities,{{sfn|Harris|2003}} and he remained there for "a long time with the disciples"<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|14:28|NKJV}}</ref> at the conclusion of his first journey. The exact duration of Paul's stay in Antioch is unknown, with estimates ranging from nine months to as long as eight years.{{sfn|Spence-Jones|2015|p=16}}

In [[Raymond E. Brown]]'s ''An Introduction to the New Testament'', published in 1997, a chronology of events in Paul's life is presented, illustrated from later 20th-century writings of [[biblical scholar]]s.{{sfn|Brown|1997|p=445}} The first missionary journey of Paul is assigned a "traditional" (and majority) dating of 46–49 AD, compared to a "revisionist" (and minority) dating of after 37 AD.{{sfn|Brown|1997|pp=428–29}}

=== Council of Jerusalem ===
{{Main|Council of Jerusalem}}
{{See also|Circumcision controversy in early Christianity}}
A vital meeting between Paul and the Jerusalem church took place in the year 49 AD by traditional (and majority) dating, compared to a revisionist (and minority) dating of 47/51 AD.{{sfn|Brown|1997|pp=428–29, 445}} The meeting is described in Acts 15:2<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|15:2|NIV}}</ref> and usually seen as the same event mentioned by Paul in Galatians<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|2:1-10|NRSV}}</ref>{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=St Paul}} The key question raised was whether [[Gentile]] converts needed to be circumcised.{{sfn|Bechtel|1910}}<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|15:2|NIV}},{{Bibleverse|Galatians|2:1|NIV}}</ref> At this meeting, [[Saint Peter|Peter]], [[James (brother of Jesus)|James]], and [[John the Apostle|John]], who Paul calls [[Pillars of the Church]],<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|2:9|NRSV}}</ref><ref>Margaret M. Mitchell, ''Gentile Christianity'' (2006), p. 103</ref> accepted Paul's mission to the Gentiles.

The Jerusalem meetings are mentioned in Acts, and also in Paul's letters.{{sfn|White|2007|pp=148–49}} For example, the Jerusalem visit for famine relief<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|11:27–30}}</ref> apparently corresponds to the "first visit" (to Peter and James only).<ref name="Bibleref2|Gal.|1:18–20">{{Bibleverse|Galatians|1:18–20}}</ref>{{sfn|White|2007|pp=148–49}} [[F. F. Bruce]] suggested that the "fourteen years" could be from Paul's conversion rather than from his first visit to Jerusalem.{{sfn|Bruce|2000|p=151}}

=== Incident at Antioch ===
{{Main|Incident at Antioch}}
Despite the agreement achieved at the Council of Jerusalem, Paul recounts how he later publicly confronted Peter in a dispute sometimes called the "[[Incident at Antioch]]", over Peter's reluctance to share a meal with Gentile Christians in Antioch because they did not strictly adhere to Jewish customs.{{sfn|Bechtel|1910}}

Writing later of the incident, Paul recounts, "I opposed [Peter] to his face, because he was clearly in the wrong", and says he told Peter, "You are a Jew, yet you [[Hellenistic Judaism|live like a Gentile and not like a Jew]]. How is it, then, that you [[Judaizers|force Gentiles to follow Jewish customs]]?"<ref name="Bibleref2|Gal.|2:11–14">{{Bibleverse|Galatians|2:11–14}}</ref> Paul also mentions that even Barnabas, his traveling companion and fellow apostle until that time, sided with Peter.{{sfn|Bechtel|1910}}

The outcome of the incident remains uncertain. The ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' suggests that Paul won the argument, because "Paul's account of the incident leaves no doubt that Peter saw the justice of the rebuke".{{sfn|Bechtel|1910}} However, Paul himself never mentions a victory, and [[L. Michael White]]'s ''From Jesus to Christianity'' draws the opposite conclusion: "The blowup with Peter was a total failure of political bravado, and Paul soon left Antioch as ''persona non grata'', never again to return".{{sfn|White|2007|p=170}}

The primary source account of the incident at Antioch is Paul's [[Epistle to the Galatians|letter to the Galatians]].<ref name="Bibleref2|Gal.|2:11–14"/>

=== Second missionary journey ===
[[File:V&A - Raphael, St Paul Preaching in Athens (1515).jpg|thumb|upright=1|St. Paul in [[Athens]] delivering the ''[[Areopagus sermon]]'' in which he addressed early issues in [[Christology]], depicted in a 1515 portrait by [[Raphael]]{{sfn|McGrath|2006}}{{sfn|Mills|2003|pp=1109–10}}]]
Paul left for his second missionary journey from Jerusalem, in late Autumn 49 AD,{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|p=400}} after the meeting of the [[Council of Jerusalem]] where the circumcision question was debated. On their trip around the Mediterranean Sea, Paul and his companion Barnabas stopped in Antioch where they had a sharp argument about taking [[John Mark]] with them on their trips. The Acts of the Apostles said that John Mark had left them in a previous trip and gone home. Unable to resolve the dispute, Paul and Barnabas decided to separate; Barnabas took John Mark with him, while [[Silas]] joined Paul.

Paul and Silas initially visited [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]] (Paul's birthplace), [[Derbe]] and [[Lystra]]. In Lystra, they met [[Saint Timothy|Timothy]], a disciple who was spoken well of, and decided to take him with them. Paul and his companions, Silas and Timothy, had plans to journey to the southwest portion of Asia Minor to preach the gospel but during the night, Paul had a vision of a man of Macedonia standing and begging him to go to Macedonia to help them. After seeing the vision, Paul and his companions left for Macedonia to preach the gospel to them.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|16:6–10}}</ref> The Church kept growing, adding believers, and strengthening in faith daily.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|16:5|KJV}}</ref>

In [[Philippi]], Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a servant girl, whose masters were then unhappy about the loss of income her soothsaying provided.<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|16:16–24}}</ref> They seized Paul and Silas and dragged them into the marketplace before the authorities and Paul and Silas were put in jail. After a miraculous earthquake, the gates of the prison fell apart and Paul and Silas could have escaped but remained; this event led to the conversion of the jailor.<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|16:25–40}}</ref> They continued traveling, going by [[Berea (Bible)|Berea]] and then to Athens, where Paul preached to the Jews and God-fearing Greeks in the synagogue and to the Greek intellectuals in the [[Areopagus]]. Paul continued from Athens to [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]].

===Interval in Corinth===
Around 50–52 AD, Paul spent 18 months in [[Corinth]]. The reference in Acts to Proconsul [[Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus|Gallio]] helps ascertain this date (cf. [[Delphi Inscription|Gallio Inscription]]).{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=St Paul}} In Corinth, Paul met [[Priscilla and Aquila]],<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|18:2|NKJV}}</ref> who became faithful believers and helped Paul through his other missionary journeys. The couple followed Paul and his companions to [[Ephesus]] and stayed there to start one of the strongest and most faithful churches at that time.<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|18:18–21|NKJV}}</ref>

In 52, departing from Corinth, Paul stopped at the nearby village of [[Kechries|Cenchreae]] to have his hair cut off, because of a vow he had earlier taken.<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|18:18|NKJV}}</ref> It is possible this was to be a final haircut before fulfilling his vow to become a [[Nazirite]] for a defined period of time.{{sfn|Driscoll|1911}} With Priscilla and Aquila, the missionaries then sailed to Ephesus<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|18:19–21|NKJV}}</ref> and then Paul alone went on to [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]] to greet the Church there. He then traveled north to Antioch, where he stayed for some time ({{langx|grc|ποιήσας χρόνον τινὰ }}).<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|18:22-23|NKJV}}</ref>  Some New Testament texts{{refn|group=note|This clause is not found in some major sources: [[Codex Sinaiticus]], [[Codex Alexandrinus]], [[Codex Vaticanus]] or Codex Laudianus}} suggest that he also visited Jerusalem during this period for one of the Jewish feasts, possibly [[Shavuot|Pentecost]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|18:21|NKJV}}</ref> Textual critic [[Henry Alford (theologian)|Henry Alford]] and others consider the reference to a Jerusalem visit to be genuine<ref name="PulCom" /> and it accords with Acts 21:29,<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|21:29|NKJV}}</ref> according to which Paul and [[Trophimus|Trophimus the Ephesian]] had previously been seen in Jerusalem.

=== Third missionary journey ===
[[File:Eustache Le Sueur - The Preaching of St Paul at Ephesus - WGA12613.jpg|thumb|upright=1|''The Preaching of Saint Paul at [[Ephesus]]'', a 1649 portrait by [[Eustache Le Sueur]]{{sfn|Crease|2019|pp=309–10}}]]
According to Acts, Paul began his third missionary journey by traveling all around the region of [[Galatia]] and [[Phrygia]] to strengthen, teach and rebuke the believers. Paul then traveled to [[Ephesus]], an important [[Early centers of Christianity|center of early Christianity]], and stayed there for almost three years, probably working there as a tent maker,<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|20:34|NKJV}}</ref> as he had done when he stayed in [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]]. He is said to have performed numerous miracles, healing people and casting out demons, and he apparently organized missionary activity in other regions.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=St Paul}} Paul left Ephesus after an attack from a local silversmith resulted in a pro-[[Artemis]] riot involving most of the city.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=St Paul}} During his stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote four letters to the church in Corinth.{{sfn|McRay|2007|p=185}} The letter to the church in [[Philippians|Philippi]] is generally thought to have been written from Ephesus, though a minority view considers it may have been penned while he was imprisoned in Rome.<ref>Michael Flexsenhar 111, [https://www.academia.edu/40090544/The_Provenance_of_Philippians_and_Why_it_Matters_Old_Questions_New_Approaches_Journal_for_the_Study_of_the_New_Testament_42_1_2019_18_45  'The Provenance of Philippians and Why it Matters: Old Questions, New Approaches,'] [[Journal for the Study of the New Testament]] Volume 42, Issue 1 2019 : 18-45.</ref>

Paul went through [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]] into [[Achaea (Roman province)|Achaea]]<ref name="bibleref2|Acts|20:1–2|NKJV">{{bibleverse|Acts|20:1–2|NKJV}}</ref> and stayed in Greece, probably Corinth, for three months<ref name="bibleref2|Acts|20:1–2|NKJV"/> during 56–57 AD.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=St Paul}} Commentators generally agree that Paul dictated his [[Epistle to the Romans#Dating|Epistle to the Romans]] during this period.{{sfn|Sanday|n.d.|p=202}} He then made ready to continue on to [[Roman Syria|Syria]], but he changed his plans and traveled back through Macedonia, putatively because certain Jews had made a plot against him. In Romans 15:19,<ref>{{bibleverse|Romans|15:19}}</ref> Paul wrote that he visited [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]], but he may have meant what would now be called [[Illyria Graeca]],{{sfn|Burton|2000|p=26}} which was at that time a division of the Roman province of Macedonia.{{sfn|Petit|1909}} On their way back to Jerusalem, Paul and his companions visited other cities such as [[Philippi]], [[Troad|Troas]], [[Miletus]], [[Rhodes]], and [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]]. Paul finished his trip with a stop in [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]], where he and his companions stayed with [[Philip the Evangelist]] before finally arriving in Jerusalem.<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|21:8–10}}, {{bibleverse|Acts|21:15}}</ref>

===Conjectured journey from Rome to Spain===
Among the writings of the early Christians, [[Pope Clement I]] said that Paul was "Herald (of the Gospel of Christ) in the West", and that "he had gone to the extremity of the west".<ref>[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/1clement-lightfoot.html 1st Clement – Lightfoot translation] Early Christian Writings 1 Clem 5:5: "By reason of jealousy and strife Paul by his example pointed out the prize of patient endurance. After that he had been seven times in bonds, had been driven into exile, had been stoned, had preached in the East and in the West, he won the noble renown which was the reward of his faith, [5:6] having taught righteousness unto the whole world and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place, having been found a notable pattern of patient endurance".</ref>

Where [[Joseph Lightfoot|Lightfoot]]'s translation has "had preached" below (in the "Church tradition" section), the Hoole translation has "having become a herald".<ref>See also the endnote (3) by [[Arthur Cleveland Coxe]] on the last page of [[s:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume I/CLEMENT OF ROME/First Epistle to the Corinthians/Chapter LIX.|wikisource 1st Clement]] regarding Paul's preaching in Britain.</ref> [[John Chrysostom]] indicated that Paul preached in Spain: "For after he had been in Rome, he returned to Spain, but whether he came thence again into these parts, we know not".<ref>[https://biblehub.com/commentaries/chrysostom/2_timothy/4.htm Chrysostom's Homilies on 2 Timothy], verse 4:20</ref> [[Cyril of Jerusalem]] said that Paul, "fully preached the Gospel, and instructed even imperial Rome, and carried the earnestness of his preaching as far as Spain, undergoing conflicts innumerable, and performing Signs and wonders".<ref>[[s:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume VII/S. Cyril/Lecture 17|Cyril on Paul and gifts of the Holy Ghost]] (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II Volume VII, Lecture 17, para. 26)</ref> The [[Muratorian fragment]] mentions "the departure of Paul from the city [of Rome] [5a] (39) when he journeyed to Spain".<ref>[http://www.bible-researcher.com/muratorian.html The Muratorian Fragment] lines 38–39 Bible Research</ref>

=== Visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles ===
The following table is adapted from the book ''From Jesus to Christianity'' by Biblical scholar [[L. Michael White]],{{sfn|White|2007|pp=148–49}} matching Paul's travels as documented in the Acts and the travels in his [[Epistle to the Romans|Epistles]] but not agreed upon fully by all Biblical scholars.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;" cellpadding="5"
|- style="background:#ccc; text-align:center;"
! style="width:50%;"| Acts
! style="width:50%;"| Epistles
|- -valign="top"
| style="text-align:left;"|
* First visit to Jerusalem<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|9:26–27}}</ref>
** "after many days" of Damascus conversion
** preaches openly in Jerusalem with Barnabas
** meets apostles
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;"|
* First visit to Jerusalem<ref name="Bibleref2|Gal.|1:18–20"/>
** three years after Damascus conversion<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|1:17–18}}</ref>
** sees only Cephas (Simon Peter) and James
|- -valign="top"
| style="text-align:left;"|
* Second visit to Jerusalem<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|11:29–30}}, {{Bibleverse|Acts|12:25}}</ref>
** for famine relief
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;"|
* There is debate over whether Paul's visit in Galatians 2 refers to the visit for famine relief<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|11:30, 12:25}}</ref> or the Jerusalem Council.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|15}}</ref> If it refers to the former, then this was the trip made "after an interval of fourteen years".<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|2:1}}</ref>
|- -valign="top"
| style="text-align:left;"|
* Third visit to Jerusalem<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|15:1–19}}</ref>
** with Barnabas
** "Council of Jerusalem"
** followed by confrontation with Barnabas in Antioch<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|15:36–40}}</ref>
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;"|
* Another{{refn|group=note|Paul does not exactly say that this was his second visit. In Galatians, he lists three important meetings with Peter, and this was the second on his list. The third meeting took place in Antioch. He does not explicitly state that he did not visit Jerusalem in between this and his first visit.}} visit to Jerusalem<ref name="Bibleref2|Gal.|2:1–10"/>
** 14 years later (after Damascus conversion?)
** with Barnabas and Titus
** possibly the "Council of Jerusalem"
** Paul agrees to "remember the poor"
** followed by confrontation with Peter and Barnabas in Antioch<ref name="Bibleref2|Gal.|2:11–14"/>
|- -valign="top"
| style="text-align:left;"|
* Fourth visit to Jerusalem<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|18:21–22}}</ref>
** to "greet the church"
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;"|
* Apparently unmentioned.
|- -valign="top"
| style="text-align:left;"|
* Fifth visit to Jerusalem<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|21:17ff}}</ref>
** after an absence of several years<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|24:17}}</ref>
** to bring gifts for the poor and to present offerings
** Paul arrested
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;"|
* Another{{refn|group=note|Note that Paul only writes that he is on his way to Jerusalem, or just planning the visit. There might or might not have been additional visits before or after this visit, if he ever got to Jerusalem.}} visit to Jerusalem.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|15:25}}, {{Bibleverse|2 Corinthians|8–9}}, {{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|16:1–3}}</ref>
** to deliver the collection for the poor
|}

===Last visit to Jerusalem and arrest===
[[File:Paul arrested.jpg|thumb|upright=1|St. Paul's arrest depicted in an early 1900s Bible illustration]]
[[File:St. Paul’s Grotto.jpg|thumb|upright=1|St. Paul's [[grotto]] in [[Rabat, Malta]]]]
In 57 AD, upon completion of his third missionary journey, Paul arrived in Jerusalem for his fifth and final visit with a collection of money for the local community. The Acts of the Apostles reports that initially he  was warmly received. However, Acts goes on to recount how Paul was warned by [[James, brother of Jesus|James]] and the elders that he was gaining a reputation for being [[antinomianism|against the Law]], saying, "they have been told about you that you teach all the Jews living among the Gentiles to forsake Moses, and that you tell them not to circumcise their children or observe the customs."<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|21:21}}</ref> Paul underwent a [[Ritual washing in Judaism|purification ritual]] so that "all will know that there is nothing in what they have been told about you, but that you yourself observe and guard the law."<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|21:22–26}}</ref>

When the seven days of the purification ritual were almost completed, some "Jews from Asia" (most likely from [[Asia (Roman province)|Roman Asia]]) accused Paul of defiling the temple by bringing gentiles into it. He was seized and dragged out of the temple by an angry mob. When the [[tribune]] heard of the uproar, he and some [[centurion]]s and soldiers rushed to the area. Unable to determine his identity and the cause of the uproar, they placed him in chains.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|21:27–36}}</ref> He was about to be [[Protective custody|taken into the barracks]] when he asked to speak to the people. He was given permission by the Romans and proceeded to tell his story. After a while, the crowd responded. "Up to this point they listened to him, but then they shouted, 'Away with such a fellow from the earth! For he should not be allowed to live.'"<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|22:22}}</ref> The tribune ordered that Paul be brought into the barracks and interrogated under [[Flagellation|flogging]]. Paul asserted his [[Roman citizenship]], which would [[Valerian and Porcian laws#Porcian laws|prevent his flogging]]. The tribune "wanted to find out what Paul was being accused of by the angry Jerusalemites, the next day he released him and ordered the chief priests and the entire council to meet".<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|22:30}}</ref> Paul spoke before the council and caused a disagreement between the [[Pharisees]] and the [[Sadducees]]. When this threatened to turn violent, the tribune ordered his soldiers to take Paul by force and return him to the barracks.<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|23:10}}</ref>

The next morning, 40 Jews "bound themselves by an oath neither to eat nor drink until they had killed Paul",<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|23:12}}</ref> but the son of Paul's sister heard of the plot and notified Paul, who notified the tribune that the conspiracists were going to ambush him. The tribune ordered two centurions to "Get ready to leave by nine o'clock tonight for Caesarea with two hundred soldiers, seventy horsemen, and two hundred spearmen. Also provide mounts for Paul to ride, and take him safely to [[Antonius Felix|Felix the governor]]."<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|23:23}}</ref>

Paul was taken to [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]], where the governor ordered that he be kept under guard in Herod's headquarters. "Five days later the high priest Ananias came down with some elders and an attorney, a certain Tertullus, and they reported their case against Paul to the governor."<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|24:1}}</ref> Both Paul and the Jewish authorities gave a statement "But Felix, who was rather well informed about the Way, adjourned the hearing with the comment, "When Lysias the tribune comes down, I will decide your case."<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|24:22}}</ref>

[[Antonius Felix|Marcus Antonius Felix]] then ordered the centurion to keep Paul in custody, but to "let him have some liberty and not to prevent any of his friends from taking care of his needs."<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|24:23}}</ref> He was held there for two years by Felix, until a new governor, [[Porcius Festus]], was appointed. The "chief priests and the leaders of the Jews" requested that Festus return Paul to Jerusalem. After Festus had stayed in Jerusalem "not more than eight or ten days, he went down to Caesarea; the next day he took his seat on the tribunal and ordered Paul to be brought." When Festus suggested that he be sent back to Jerusalem for further trial, Paul exercised his right as a Roman citizen to "appeal unto Caesar".{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=St Paul}} Finally, Paul and his companions sailed for Rome where Paul was to stand trial for his alleged crimes.{{sfn|Capes|Reeves|Richards|2011|p=203}}

Acts recounts that on the way to Rome for his appeal as a Roman citizen to Caesar, Paul was shipwrecked on Melita, which is present-day [[Malta]],<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|27:39–44}}</ref> where the islanders showed him "unusual kindness" and where he was met by [[Saint Publius|Publius]].<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|28:1–10}}</ref> From Malta, he travelled to Rome via [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]], [[Reggio Calabria|Rhegium]], and [[Pozzuoli|Puteoli]].<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|28:11–14}}</ref>

===Two years in Rome===
[[File:Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bibel in Bildern 1860 235.png|thumb|upright=1|''Paul Arrives in Rome'' from {{lang|de|[[commons:Die Bibel in Bildern|Die Bibel in Bildern]]}}, published in the 1850s]]
Paul finally arrived in Rome {{circa|60&nbsp;AD}}, where he spent another two years under house arrest, according to the traditional account.{{sfn|Polhill|1999|pp=80,164-5,329}} The narrative of Acts ends with Paul preaching in Rome for two years from his rented home while awaiting trial.<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|28:30–31|NKJV}}</ref>

[[Irenaeus]] wrote in the [[Christianity in the 2nd century#Irenaeus|2nd century]] that Peter and Paul had been the founders of the church in Rome and had appointed [[Pope Linus|Linus]] as succeeding bishop.<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.iv.html Irenaeus Against Heresies 3.3].2: the "...Church founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul; as also [by pointing out] the faith preached to men, which comes down to our time by means of the successions of the bishops.{{nbsp}}[...] The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up the Church, committed into the hands of Linus the office of the episcopate"; Christian Classics Ethereal Library</ref> However, Paul was not a bishop of Rome, nor did he bring [[Christianity to Rome]] since there were already Christians in Rome when he arrived there;<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|28:14–15}}</ref> Paul also wrote his letter to the church at Rome before he had visited Rome.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|1:1, 7, 11–13; 15:23–29}}</ref> Paul only played a supporting part in the life of the church in Rome.<ref>MaGee Greg. [http://bible.org/article/origins-church-rome "The Origins of the Church at Rome"] Bible.org; Accessed 18 March 2013</ref>

=== Death ===
[[File:Decapitación de San Pablo - Simonet - 1887.jpg|thumb|upright=1|''The Beheading of Saint Paul'', an 1887 portrait by [[Enrique Simonet]]]]
Paul's death is believed to have occurred after the [[Great Fire of Rome]] in July 64 AD, but before the last year of [[Nero]]'s reign, in 68 AD.{{sfn|Brown|1997|p=436}} [[Acts 28]] concludes with Paul living and preaching in Rome but does not mention his death. Eric Franklin sees this as the author's "[[purposeful omission|omission]]", comparable to his emphasis on Stephen's preaching, rather than his death, in [[Acts 7]].<ref>Franklin, E., ''59. Luke'' in Barton, J. and Muddiman, J. (2001), [https://b-ok.org/dl/946961/8f5f43 The Oxford Bible Commentary], p. 939: "Luke will later omit an account of Paul's death".</ref>

[[Pope Clement I]] writes in his [[First Epistle of Clement|Epistle to the Corinthians]] that after Paul "had borne his testimony before the rulers", he "departed from the world and went unto the holy place, having been found a notable pattern of patient endurance."<ref>Pope Clement I, ''First Epistle to the Corinthians'', 5:7</ref> [[Ignatius of Antioch]] writes in his [[Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians|Epistle to the Ephesians]] that Paul was "martyred", without giving any further information.<ref>Ignatius of Antioch, ''[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0104.htm Epistle to the Ephesians]'', 12:55. "You are initiated into the mysteries of the Gospel with Paul, the holy, the martyred, the deservedly most happy, at whose feet may I be found (...)."</ref> [[Tertullian]] writes that Paul was "crowned with an exit like John" (''Paulus Ioannis exitu coronatur''), although it is unclear [[New Testament people named John|which John]] he meant.<ref>{{Cite web |title=''De praescriptione haereticorum.'' Caput XXXVI [3] - Wikisource |author=Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus |work=la.wikisource.org |date= |access-date=12 November 2023 |url= https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/De_praescriptione_haereticorum |language=la}} {{Cite web |title=CHURCH FATHERS: The Prescription Against Heretics (Tertullian) |author=Tertullian |translator=Peter Holmes |work=New Advent |date=1885 |access-date=12 November 2023 |url= https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0311.htm}}</ref>

[[Eusebius]] states that Paul was killed during the [[Neronian persecution|Neronian Persecution]]<ref>Eusebius, ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Church History]]'', Book 2, Chapter 22, Paragraph 3</ref> and, quoting from [[Dionysius of Corinth]], argues that [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and Paul were martyred "at the same time".<ref>Eusebius, ''Church History'', Book 2, Chapter 25, Paragraph 8</ref> This is also reported by [[Sulpicius Severus]], who claimed Peter was crucified while Paul was beheaded.<ref>{{Cite web |title=''Chronicle / Sacred History, Book II''. Chapter 29. |author=Sulpitius Severus |work=[[New Advent]] |date=1894 |access-date=11 November 2023 |url= https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/35052.htm |quote=In the meantime, the number of the Christians being now very large, it happened that Rome was destroyed by fire, while Nero was stationed at Antium. (...) Nero could not by any means he tried escape from the charge that the fire had been caused by his orders. He therefore turned the accusation against the Christians (...) At that time Paul and Peter were condemned to death, the former being beheaded with a sword, while Peter suffered crucifixion.}}</ref> [[John Chrysostom]] provides an account of Nero imprisoning Paul, but not of his execution, and no mention of Peter.<ref>{{Cite web |title=''Concerning Lowliness of Mind.'' Chapter 4. |author=John Chrysostom |work=New Advent |date=1889 |access-date=11 November 2023 |url=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1907.htm |quote=Now Nero had then cast him into prison. (...) when he saw Paul having lighted a lamp throughout the world, (...) [Nero] exerted himself both to extinguish what was preached, and to put the teachers out of the way; in order that he might be allowed with authority to do anything he pleased; and after binding that holy man, cast him into prison.}}</ref> [[Lactantius]] only mentioned '[It was Nero] who first persecuted the servants of God; he crucified Peter, and slew Paul' (''Paulum interfecit'').<ref name=Lactantius /><ref>{{Cite web |title=''De mortibus persecutorum'' - Wikisource |author=Lactantius |work=la.wikisource.org |date= |access-date=12 November 2023 |url= https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/De_mortibus_persecutorum#2 |language=la}}</ref>

Based on the letters attributed to Paul, [[Jerome]] claims Paul was imprisoned by Nero in 'the twenty-fifth year after our Lord's passion' (''post passionem Domini vicesimo quinto anno''), 'that is the second of Nero' (''id est, secundo Neronis''), 'at the time when [[Porcius Festus|Festus]] Procurator of Judea succeeded [[Antonius Felix|Felix]], he was sent bound to Rome, (...) remaining for two years in free custody'. Jerome interpreted the [[Second Epistle to Timothy]] to indicate that 'Paul was dismissed by Nero' (''Paulum a Nerone dimissum'') 'that the gospel of Christ might be preached also in the West'; but 'in the fourteenth year of Nero' (''quarto decimo Neronis anno'') 'on the same day with Peter, [Paul] was beheaded at Rome for Christ's sake and was buried in the Ostian way, the thirty-seventh year after our Lord's passion' (''anno post passionem Domini tricesimo septimo'').<ref>{{Cite web |title=''De Viris Illustribus'' Chapter 5: Paul. |author=Jerome |translator=Ernest Cushing Richardson |work=New Advent |date=1892 |access-date=11 November 2023 |url=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2708.htm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hieronymus. ''De viris illustribus.'' Caput V |last=Khazarzar |first=Ruslan |work=khazarzar.skeptik.net |date= |access-date=11 November 2023 |url= http://khazarzar.skeptik.net/books/hieronym/viris_l.htm |language=la}}</ref>{{sfn|Tajra|2010|p=188}}

A legend later developed that his martyrdom occurred at the Aquae Salviae, on the [[Via Laurentina]]. According to this legend, after Paul was decapitated, his severed head bounced three times, giving rise to a source of water each time that it touched the ground, which is how the place earned the name "[[San Paolo alle Tre Fontane]]" ("St Paul at the Three Fountains").<ref name="VaticanBenedict">{{cite conference|first=Joseph Aloisius|last=Ratzinger|authorlink=Pope Benedict XVI|title=General Audience of 4 February 2009: St Paul's martyrdom and heritage|publisher=Libreria Editrice Vaticana|year=2009|location=[[Paul VI Audience Hall]], Rome|url=https://w2.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/audiences/2009/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20090204.html|access-date = 1 April 2016}}</ref>{{sfn|De Leonardis|Masi|1999|p=21}} The apocryphal [[Acts of Paul]] also describe the martyrdom and the burial of Paul, but their narrative is highly fanciful and largely unhistorical.{{sfn|James|1924}}