Editing Pannonia (section)

== History ==
=== Consolidation and establishment of administration ===
{{Further information|Julio-Claudian dynasty}}
Illyricum was divided into [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]] (initially called Illyricum Superius) and Pannonia (initially Illyricum Inferius) in 8 or 9 AD.{{refn|group=note|It was not until the second part of the century that the term "Pannonia" came into common usage.}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=89}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=44}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=21}}</ref>

According to [[Suetonius]], with the ''Bellum Batonianum'', Tiberius finally defeated all peoples between the Danube and the Adriatic Sea.{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=89}} No Illyrian resistance is known after this, not due to the natives' compliance with the new ''status quo'', but due to their extreme exhaustion.{{Sfn|Wilkes|1992|p=207-208}} The eligible Pannonian youth were conscripted and commanded to other provinces.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=44}} The communities taking part in the uprising were afterward relocated and organized into ''[[civitates]]'' under military supervision.{{refn|group=note|The [[Azali (tribe)|Azali]] were moved northwards at this time.}}{{Sfn|Tóth|1983|p=21}}

The military occupation of Pannonia may have been carried out in gradual steps.{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=90}} The Romans felt it necessary to resettle certain tribes to the territory of the peoples north of the Drava, which, for them, had no economic, but strategic significance. Augustus formed a kind of alliance where the Romans would act as supervisors, and it was not until his death (14 AD) that [[Roman legion|legions]] would be moved over from South Pannonia.{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=91}}

The second emperor Tiberius ({{Reign|17|37 AD}}) founded multiple ''[[coloniae]]'' in the province and developed its road network.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|pp=91–92}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=45–46, 50}}</ref> However, due to these land's unsuitability for cultivation, it was a hard task to persuade veterans to comply with settling there, and he had to silence a mutiny right when assuming power.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=45-46}} He sent his son [[Drusus Julius Caesar]] to create tranquility and depose Maroboduus, who needed Roman support for his war against [[Arminius]]. This ultimately caused the rise of [[Vannius]] (20 AD), who ruled over an extended realm.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=96}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=46–47}}</ref>

It was [[Claudius]] ({{Reign|41|54 AD}}) who finished Pannonia's occupation and began to construct of the local ''[[Limes (Roman Empire)|limes]]''. Systematic integration into the Empire accompanied by the establishment of settled Roman life progressed subsequently.{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=92}} In 50 AD, Vannius was overthrown by [[Vangio and Sido]], who enjoyed the emperor's support.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=90}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=47}}</ref> By this date, the nomadic [[Sarmatians|Sarmatian]] population of the [[Iazyges]] had taken possession of the [[Danube–Tisza Interfluve]], helping the Romans by being a [[buffer state]] against the dangerous Dacians.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=96}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=41}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=22}}</ref>

At first, the primary goal of the Roman administration was the conclusion of the barbarian conflicts outside the province. In [[Nero]]'s time ({{Reign|54|68 AD}}) as many as 100,000 barbarians were moved from Pannonia to Moesia by [[Tiberius Plautius Silvanus Aelianus|Plautius Silvanus Aelianus]], and 50,000 may have been settled in Pannonia by [[Lucius Tampius Flavianus|Tampius Flavianus]]. During his important governorship, money began to circulate in the Barbaricum and the line of the ''limes'' was stabilized.{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=92}}

=== Under the Flavians ===
{{Further information|Flavian dynasty}}
The [[Year of the Four Emperors]] (69 AD) passed with peace in Pannonia. Flavianus declared for [[Vespasian]] and led his legions to Italy against [[Vitellius]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=47, 48}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=22}}</ref> Vespasian ({{Reign|69|79 AD}}) invested greatly in the construction of the ''limes''.{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=92}} Discarding the Augustan strategy where the legions' role was with maintaining order in their provinces, the [[Flavian emperors]] continually moved them to the border. This way they were prevented from interfering in [[domestic policy]], while the conquests were already pacified.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=49, 85}} Systematic circulation of money  in the region situated north of the Drava shows that by this time Roman civilization had firmly taken root there.{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=92}}

[[Domitian]]'s ({{Reign|81|96}}) emperorship saw expensive wars with the barbarians, as a result of which the military emphasis shifted to the Danube frontier.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=93}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=98}}</ref> At the end of 85 or the beginning of 86, the reemerging Dacians under [[Decebalus]] raided [[Moesia]], killing its governor and eradicating a legion. After a brief stay, Domitian left [[Cornelius Fuscus]] to deal with the situation. After clearing the province of raiders, Fuscus undertook a disastrous campaign and lost his life (86). Finally, in 88, [[Tettius Julianus]] defeated Decebalus and the sides agreed to make peace.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=87}} Vangio and Sido were most likely dead by now, the Marcomanni and [[Quadi]] denied vassal duties.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=88}} When the emperor's punitive expedition (partially sent through Dacian territory) was repelled in 89, he—despite the damages suffered—settled for mild terms with Decebalus, instead committing his forces elsewhere. In the same year, he held his triumphs over the Dacians and [[Chatti]], but not over the disloyal Danubian Germans. When the Romans started supporting the [[Lugii]] against them, they made a pact with the Iazyges. This produced another war, almost completely unknown except for another catastrophe and destruction of a legion at the hands of the nomads.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=89}} In 92 or 93, he finished the war, but held only an [[ovation]], indicating he probably had further plans in Pannonia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=89–90}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=23}}</ref>

=== Under the Antonines ===
{{Further information|Nerva–Antonine dynasty}}

We hear of war with the Danubian Germans again under [[Nerva]] ({{Reign|96|98}}).<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=93}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=90}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=23}}</ref>
[[File:Pannonia02.png|thumb|172x172px|The divided Pannonia in the second century AD]]
Between 103 and 107, [[Trajan]] ({{Reign|98|117}}) executed the division of the province into [[Pannonia Inferior]] and [[Pannonia Superior]]. This allowed the Empire to better combat the radically different Germanic and Sarmatian tribes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=93}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=98}}</ref> While Superior had most urbanized areas and a shorter frontier with three legions, Inferior contained one ''[[municipium]]'' and one legion, virtually being a border zone.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=99}} Under his reign, the placement of garrison and the main lines of commerce became permanent.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=94}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=102}}</ref>

The creation of [[Roman Dacia]] had a great effect on Pannonia. In [[Trajan's Dacian Wars]], the Iazyges allied with the Romans, seeking to retain [[Oltenia]] where they were expelled by Decebalus. A brief confrontation in 107 was resolved [[Hadrian]], then-governor of Pannonia Inferior and it may have been agreed that the nomads would instead take possession of the region between the Tisza and the [[Apuseni Mountains]], not incorporated into the new province.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=103}} However, taking advantage of Trajan's death and the preoccupation of the Empire with the [[Trajan's Parthian campaign|Parthian war]], they joined forces with the relative [[Roxolani]] and attacked again in 117, to which Dacia's governor, [[Gaius Julius Quadratus Bassus|Julius Quadratus Bassus]] fell victim. Hadrian ({{Reign|117|138}}) traveled to the spot and invested [[Marcius Turbo]] as governor of both Dacia and Pannonia Inferior to defeat the barbarians. The Roxolani were pacified first. Turbo's authorization was over in 119 as Iazyx peace envoys appeared in Rome.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=94}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=104}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|pp=24–25}}</ref> The postal connection between the two provinces through the Danube–Tisza Interfluve—which aggravated relations with the Sarmatians—was completed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=94}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=104}}</ref>

War with the Quadi broke out again in the last years of Hadrian's reign, which his adopted son and joint governor of the Pannonian provinces, [[Aelius Caesar]] successfully handled until he died in 138. Command of Pannonia Superior was taken over by [[Titus Haterius Nepos (consul)|Haterius Nepos]], who ended the war with a Roman victory, becoming the last person to be awarded with ''[[ornamenta triumphalia]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=95}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=106}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=25}}</ref>
[[File:REX QUADIS DATUS.jpg|thumb|136x136px|The coin of Pius (reverse), with the circumscription REX QUADIS DATUS]]
Under [[Antoninus Pius]]'s ({{Reign|138|161}}) quiet reign, some coins were issued propagating not the ending of a new campaign but the reestablishment of ''[[Foederati|foederatus]]'' relationship by the investiture of a new Quadi king. Discharges and detachments of troops happened.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=95}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=106–107}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=25}}</ref>

Findings of hoards of coins likely buried during the rule of [[Marcus Aurelius]] ({{Reign|161|180}}) evidence turmoil due to barbarian attacks.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=95}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=107–108}}</ref> Large-scale population movements in [[Northern Europe|Northern]] and [[Eastern Europe]] related to the [[Goths]] highly endangered Rome's clients, who wanted the Empire to give its lands to settlement and extend its protection over the tribes. Rome was unwilling to grant these requests.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974b|pp=9-10}} The Romans may not have been aware of the dangerous situation at the start of the [[Parthian war of Lucius Verus]] because they sent a whole legion and many ''[[vexillatio]]nes'' away from Pannonia. It is thanks to the diplomatic efforts made by regional governors that tensions were eased until the dispatched forces could get back. When the threat became fully clear, Marcus even raised new legions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=96}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974b|p=7}}</ref> The first attack came in the winter of 166-167, from the [[Lombards]] and [[Ubii]], between [[Brigetio]] and [[Arrabona]]. It was quickly repulsed by two auxiliary units. [[Cassius Dio]] tells of a legation of 11 tribes led by the Marcomanni subsequently petitioning the governor of Pannonia Superior, [[Marcus Iallius Bassus|Iallius Bassus]] to concede. This may have been the last attempt at making peace, as next, a barbarian coalition formed to fight Rome.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=97}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974b|pp=10–12}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=30}}</ref>

In 168, Marcus and [[Lucius Verus|Verus]] returned to Aquileia and set up their base there. The Marcomanni and Quadi broke through the border and the Alps' crosses, besieging the city and burning the small town of [[Opitergium]]. The peak of the [[Antonine Plague]] in the peninsula was at this time, causing Verus's death. The next years' heavy fighting resulted in the death of governor of Moesia Superior and Dacia [[Marcus Claudius Fronto|Claudius Fronto]] and [[praetorian prefect]] [[Marcus Macrinius Vindex|Macrinius Vindex]]. [[Claudius Pompeianus]] and future-emperor [[Pertinax]] returned part of the spoils taken by the enemy and led the offensive starting from 172. Against severe losses, the Romans forced first the Quadi, then the Marcomanni to surrender (172-173), while the military emphasis shifted to the Iazyges. Despite the winter incursion of the Iazyges was crushed (173-174), the Quadi overthrew their Roman-installed king and started to support the nomads. While the two nations tried to negotiate, Marcus eventually defeated both of them in separate campaigns.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|pp=97–98}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974b|pp=11–16}}</ref>

The second phase of the war started in 177. The attacking barbarians were kept in check, with Marcus and his son, the newly acclaimed [[Commodus]] ({{Reign|177|192}}) coming to Pannonia. A decisive campaign by [[Publius Tarrutenius Paternus|Tarrutenius Paternus]] in 179 convinced the Iazyges to make peace. In the same year, the land of the Danubian Germans was occupied by a force Cassius Dio claims to be 40,000 men—the number of soldiers stationed in Pannonia Inferior and Pannonia Superior combined. Control over tribes was taken over by prefects. [[Marcus Valerius Maximianus|Valerius Maximianus]], born in Pannonia, was an important general here.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=98}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974b|p=17}}</ref> Any possible plans with the creation of two new provinces—Marcomannia and Sarmatia—were aborted after the death of Marcus in 180. Commodus returned to the old border and client system, to which new residents were seemingly willing to join. As the barbarians pillaged during the war, taking cattle and captives away en masse, the destruction and loss of life in Pannonia was huge.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=99}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974b|pp=18–22}}</ref>

Commodus vigorously started to strengthen the ''limes'' with new fortifications. Minor raids on the province continued to occur, prompting a third campaign over the Danube at about. This campaign was smaller, and its leader, [[Tigidius Perennis]], achieved a victory. Another victorious expedition was conducted in 188.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=99}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974b|p=25}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=27}}</ref>

=== Under the Severans ===
{{Further information|Severan dynasty}}
During the [[Year of the Five Emperors]] (193), no attack was made on Pannonia. According to [[Herodian]], [[Septimius Severus]] ({{Reign|193|211}}) calmed the barbarian tribes via negotiations before marching off his troops to Italy and gaining the throne. In the coming years, the arrival of foreign groups led to new conflicts, but these were centered on Dacia and Pannonia only experienced collateral effects.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|pp=100–101}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974b|p=25}}</ref> The Severans' rule was supported by the Pannonian military and other provinces of the collective "Illyricum" region, which became politically important.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974b|p=29}} In 202, a thorough visit to Pannonia by the imperial house was organized. Partly during this tour and throughout Severus' reign, the province benefited from many constructions. The road network was fully repaired, civilian and military buildings were inaugurated, military camps were improved and cities were protected with walls thus increasing their rank.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=102}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=28}}</ref>

=== Administration ===
Pannonia Superior was under the consular legate, who had formerly administered the single province, and had three legions under his control. Pannonia Inferior was at first under a praetorian legate with a single legion as the garrison; after [[Marcus Aurelius]], it was under a consular legate, but still with only one legion. The frontier on the Danube was protected by the establishment of the two colonies [[Aelia Mursia]] and [[Aelia Aquincum]] by [[Hadrian]].

Under [[Diocletian]] and his successors, a fourfold division of the country was made:{{Sfn|Borhy|2014|pp=124–127}}
* [[Pannonia Prima]] in the northwest, with its capital in Savaria, it included [[Pannonia Superior]] and the major part of Central Pannonia between the Raba and Drava,
* [[Pannonia Valeria]] in the northeast, with its capital in [[Sopianae]], it comprised the remainder of Central Pannonia between the Raba, Drava and Danube,
* [[Pannonia Savia]] in the southwest, with its capital in [[Siscia]],
* [[Pannonia Secunda]] in the southeast, with its capital in [[Sirmium]]

Diocletian also moved parts of today's [[Slovenia]] out of Pannonia and incorporated them in [[Noricum]].{{Sfn|Borhy|2014|pp=126–127}} In 324 AD, [[Constantine I]] enlarged the borders of Roman Pannonia to the east, annexing the plains of what is now eastern Hungary, northern Serbia and western Romania up to the [[Limes (Roman Empire)|limes]] that he created: the [[Devil's Dykes]].{{citation needed|date=October 2017}}

In the 4th-5th century, one of the dioceses of the Roman Empire was known as the [[Diocese of Pannonia]]. It had its capital in [[Sirmium]] and included all four provinces that were formed from historical Pannonia, as well as the provinces of [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]], [[Noricum]] Mediterraneum and Noricum Ripense.{{Sfn|Fitz|1993–1995|pp=1175–1177}}

<gallery>
File:Pannonia01.png|Pannonia in the 1st century
File:Pannonia02.png|Pannonia in the 2nd century
File:Pannonia03 en.png|Pannonia in the 4th century
File:Limes4-en.png|Pannonia with Constantine I "limes" in 330 AD
</gallery>

=== Loss ===
In the 4th century, the Romans (especially under [[Valentinian I]]) fortified the villas and relocated barbarians to the border regions. In 358 they won a great victory over the [[Sarmatians]], but raids didn't stop. In 401 the [[Visigoths]] fled to the province from the [[Huns]], and the border guarding peoples fled to [[Roman Italy|Italia]] from them, but were beaten by [[Uldin]] in exchange for the transferring of Eastern Pannonia. In 433 Rome completely handed over the territory to [[Attila]] for the subjugation of the [[Burgundians]] attacking [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]].{{Sfn|Elekes|Lederer|Székely|1961|p=18}}