Editing Orchestration (section)

==Examples from the repertoire==

===J.S Bach===
During the [[Baroque]] era, composers showed increasing awareness of the expressive potential of orchestration.  While some early Baroque pieces have no indication of which instruments should play the piece, the choice of instruments being left to the musical group's leader or [[concertmaster]], there are Baroque works which specify certain instruments. The orchestral accompaniment to the aria 'et misericordia' from [[J. S. Bach]]'s ''[[Magnificat (Bach)|Magnificat]]'', BWV 243 (1723) features muted strings [[Voicing (music)#Doubling|doubled]] by flutes, a subtle combination of mellow instrumental [[timbres]].[[File:Et misericordia.png|thumb|center|500px|Orchestral introduction to 'et misericordia' from Bach's Magnificat, BWV 243.<ref>{{Cite web |last=stigekalder |date=Mar 27, 2015 |title=Bach's own score - Magnificat - Et misericordia (Duet) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Om6FA-8Rs5I |website=YouTube}}</ref>]]

A particularly imaginative example of Bach's use of changing instrumental colour between orchestral groups can be found in his Cantata BWV 67, ''[[Halt im Gedächtnis Jesum Christ]]''.  In the dramatic fourth movement, Jesus is depicted as quelling his disciples' anxiety (illustrated by agitated strings) by uttering ''Friede sei mit euch'' ("[[John 20:19|Peace be unto you]]"). The strings dovetail with sustained chords on woodwind to accompany the solo singer, an effect [[John Eliot Gardiner]] likens to "a cinematic dissolve".<ref>Gardiner, J.E. (2013, p. 313) Music in the Castle of Heaven; a Portrait of Johann Sebastian Bach. London, Allen Lane.</ref>[[File:Bach, from Cantata BWV 67, 4th movement, bars 8-13.wav|thumb|Bach, from Cantata BWV 67, 4th movement, bars 8-13]][[File:Bach, from Cantata BWV 67, 4th movement, bars 8-13.png|thumb|center|600px|Bach, from Cantata BWV 67, 4th movement, bars 8-13]]

The orchestral introduction to the opening chorus of J. S. Bach's [[epiphany (holiday)|epiphany]] Cantata [[Sie werden aus Saba alle kommen, BWV 65|''Sie werden aus Saba alle kommen'']] BWV 65, which [[John Eliot Gardiner]] (2013, p.&nbsp;328) describes as "one of the crowning glories of Bach's first Christmas season" further demonstrates the composer's mastery of his craft.  Within a space of eight bars, we hear recorders, [[oboe da caccia|oboes da caccia]], horns and strings creating a "glittery sheen" of contrasted timbres, sonorities and textures ranging from just two horns against a string [[pedal point]] in the first bar to a "restatement of the octave unison theme, this time by all the voices and instruments spread over five octaves" in bars 7-8:<ref>Gardiner, J.E. (2013, p. 328) ''Music in the Castle of Heaven''.  London, Allen Lane.</ref>[[File:Opening orchestral introduction to J.S. Bach's Cantata, BWV65.wav|thumb|Opening orchestral introduction to J.S. Bach's Cantata, BWV65.]][[File:Sie werden aus Saba Alle kommen opening bars.png|thumb|center|600px|Opening orchestral introduction to J.S. Bach's Cantata, BWV65.]]

In contrast, Bach's deployment of his instrumental forces in the opening movement of his ''[[St John Passion]]'' evokes a much darker drama: 

[[File:St John Passion opening for audio 01.wav|thumb|St John Passion, opening]][[File:St John Passion opening.png|thumb|center|600px|St John Passion opening]] "The relentless tremulant pulsation generated by the reiterated bass line, the persistent sighing figure in the violas and the violins the swirling motion in the violins so suggestive of turmoil… all contribute to its unique pathos.   Over this ferment, pairs of oboes and flutes locked in lyrical dialogue but with anguished dissonances enact a very different kind of physicality, one that creates a harrowing portrayal of nails being driven into bare flesh."<ref> Gardiner, J.E. (2013, p. 343) ''Music in the Castle of Heaven: a Portrait of Johann Sebastian Bach.''  London, Allen Lane. </ref>

Igor Stravinsky (1959, p45) marvelled at Bach's skill as an orchestrator: "What incomparable instrumental writing is Bach's. You can smell the resin [(rosin)] in his violin parts, [and] taste the reeds in the oboes."<ref>Stravinsky I. and Craft, R. ''Conversations with Igor Stravinsky''.  London, Faber.</ref>

===Rameau===
Jean Philippe [[Rameau]] was famous for "the eloquence of [his] orchestral writing which was something entirely new... - with a feeling for colour [(i.e., tone colour or [[timbre]])] that is altogether 'modern'."<ref>Pincherle, M. (1967, p. 122) ''An Illustrated History of Music''.  London, MacMillan.</ref> In 'The Entrance of Polymnie' from his opera ''[[Les Boréades]]'' (1763), the predominant string texture is shot through with descending scale figures on the bassoon, creating an exquisite blend of timbres:[[File:Entry of Polymnie from les Boreades.wav|thumb|'L'Entrée de Polymnie' from ''Les Boréades'' by Rameau.]][[File:Entry of Polymnie from les Boreades.png|thumb|center|500px|'L'Entrée de Polymnie' from ''Les Boréades'' by Rameau.]]In the aria 'Rossignols amoureux' from his opera ''[[Hippolyte et Aricie]]'', Rameau evokes the sound of lovelorn nightingales by means of two flutes blending with a solo violin, while the rest of the violins play sustained notes in the background.

[[File:Rameau 'Rossignols amoureux' from Hippolyte et Aricie 01.wav|thumb|Rameau 'Rossignols amoureux' from Hippolyte et Aricie]][[File:Rameau 'Rossignols amoureux' from Hippolyte et Aricie 02.png|thumb|center|600px|Rameau 'Rossignols amoureux' from Hippolyte et Aricie]]

===Haydn===
Joseph [[Haydn]] was a pioneer of symphonic form, but he was also a pioneer of orchestration.  In the minuet of [[Symphony No. 97 (Haydn)|Symphony No. 97]], "we can see why [[Rimsky-Korsakov]] declared Haydn to be the greatest of all masters of orchestration. The oom-pah-pah of a German dance band is rendered with the utmost refinement, amazingly by kettledrums and trumpets pianissimo, and the rustic ''[[glissando]]''… is given a finicky elegance by the grace notes in the horns as well as by the doubling of the melody an octave higher with the solo violin.  These details are not intended to blend, but to be set in relief; they are individually exquisite."<ref>Rosen, C. (1971, pp. 342–3) The Classical Style. London, Faber.</ref>[[File:Haydn, Symphony 97, third movement, bars 109-116.wav|thumb|Haydn, Symphony 97, third movement, bars 109-118]][[File:Haydn, Symphony 97, third movement, bars 109-117.png|thumb|center|500px]][[File:Haydn, Symphony 97, third movement, bars 109-118.png|thumb|center|500px|Haydn, Symphony 97, third movement, bars 109-118]] Another example of Haydn's imagination and ingenuity that shows how well he understood how orchestration can support harmony may be found in the concluding bars of the second movement of his [[Symphony No. 94 (Haydn)|Symphony No. 94]] (the "Surprise Symphony".)  Here, the oboes and bassoons take over the theme, while sustained chords in the strings accompany it with "soft, but very dissonant harmony. "<ref>Taruskin, R. (2010, p. 573) The Oxford History of Western Music: Music in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.  Oxford University Press.</ref> Flute, Horns and timpani add to the mix, all contributing to the "air of uncanny poignancy" that characterises this atmospheric conclusion.<ref>Taruskin, R. (2010, p. 573) The Oxford History of Western Music: Music in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.  Oxford University Press.</ref> [[File:Haydn, Symphony 94, second movement bars 150-156.wav|thumb|Haydn, Symphony 94, second movement bars 143-156]][[File:Haydn, Symphony 94, second movement bars 150-157.png|thumb|center|500px]][[File:Haydn, Symphony 94, second movement bars 150-158.png|thumb|center|500px|Haydn, Symphony 94, second movement bars 143-156]]

===Mozart===
[[Mozart]] "was acutely sensitive to matters of instrumentation and instrumental effect where orchestral writing was concerned", including a "meticulous attitude towards the spacing of chords."<ref>Keefe, S.P. (2003, p. 92) ''The Cambridge Companion to Mozart''. Cambridge University Press.</ref> [[H. C. Robbins Landon]] marvels at the "gorgeous wash of colour displayed in Mozart's scores."<ref>Robbins Landon, H. (1989, p. 137), Mozart, the Golden Years.  London, Thames and Hudson.</ref>   For example, the opening movement of the [[Symphony No. 39 (Mozart)|Symphony No. 39]] (K543) contains "a charming dialogue between strings and woodwind"<ref>Robbins Landon, H. and Mitchell, D. (1956, p. 191) The Mozart Companion.  London, Faber.</ref> that demonstrates the composer's exquisite aural imagination for the blending and contrast of [[timbres]].  Bars 102-3 feature a widely spaced [[voicing (music)|voicing]] over a range of four octaves.  The first and second violins weave curly parallel melodic lines, a tenth apart, underpinned by a [[pedal point]] in the double basses and a sustained [[octave]] in the horns.  Wind instruments respond in bars 104–5, accompanied by a spidery ascending [[chromatic]] line in the cellos.[[File:Symphony 39, first movement, bars 102-119.wav|thumb|Symphony 39, first movement, bars 102-119]] [[File:Symphony 39, first movement, bars 102-120.png|thumb|center|500px|Symphony 39, first movement, bars 102-105]]A graceful continuation to this features clarinets and bassoons with the lower strings supplying the bass notes.[[File:Symphony 39, first movement, bars 102-121.png|thumb|center|500px|Symphony 39, first movement, bars 106-109]]Next, a phrase for strings alone blends [[pizzicato]] cellos and basses with bowed violins and violas, playing mostly in thirds:[[File:Symphony 39, first movement, bars 110-114.png|thumb|center|500px|Symphony 39, first movement, bars 110-114]]The woodwind repeat these four bars with the violins adding a [[counter-melody]] against the cellos and basses playing [[Bow (music)|''arco'']].  The violas add crucial harmonic colouring here with their D flat in bar 115. In 1792, an early listener marvelled at the dazzling orchestration of this movement "ineffably grand and rich in ideas, with striking variety in almost all obbligato parts."<ref>{{cite web|last1=Black|first1=David|title=A personal response to the Mozart memorial concert in Hamburg and the Symphony in E-flat (K. 543)|url=https://sites.google.com/site/mozartdocuments/documents/1792-02-19-anderwitsch|website=Mozart: New Documents, edited by Dexter Edge and David Black|access-date=May 10, 2017}}</ref>[[File:Symphony 39, first movement, bars 115-119.png|thumb|center|500px|Symphony 39, first movement, bars 115-119]]"The main feature in [his] orchestration is Mozart's density, which is of course part of his density of thought."<ref>Robbins Landon, H. (1989, p. 137), Mozart, the Golden Years.  London, Thames and Hudson.</ref> Another important technique of Mozart's orchestration was [[call and response (music)|antiphony]], the "call and response" exchange of musical motifs or "ideas" between different groups in the orchestra. In an antiphonal section, the composer may have one group of instruments introduce a melodic idea (e.g., the first violins), and then have the woodwinds "answer" by restating this melodic idea, often with some type of variation. In the trio section of the minuet from his [[Symphony No. 41 (Mozart)|Symphony No. 41]] (1788), the flute, bassoons and horn exchange phrases with the strings, with the first violin line [[Voicing (music)#Doubling|doubled]] at the [[octave]] by the first oboe:[[File:Mozart Jupiter Symphony Trio.wav|thumb|Trio section of the Minuet from Mozart's Symphony No. 41.]] [[File:Mozart Jupiter Trio.png|thumb|center|500px|Trio section of the Minuet from Mozart's Symphony No. 41.]] Charles Rosen (1971, p.&nbsp;240) admires Mozart's skill in orchestrating his piano concertos, particularly the [[Piano Concerto No. 22 (Mozart)|Concerto in E flat major, K482]], a work that introduced clarinets into the mix.  "This concerto places the greatest musical reliance on tone colour, which is, indeed, almost always ravishing.  One lovely example of its sonorities comes near the beginning."<ref>Rosen, C. (1971, p. 240) The Classical Style.  London Faber.</ref>[[File:Mozart Piano Concerto 22 first movement opening.wav|thumb|Mozart Piano Concerto K482 first movement bars 1-12]][[File:Mozart Piano Concerto K482 first movement bars 1-6.png|thumb|center|500px|Mozart Piano Concerto K482 first movement bars 1-6]] 
 
The orchestral [[tutti]] in the first two bars is answered by just horns and bassoon in bars 2–6.  This passage repeats with fresh orchestration: [[File:Mozart Piano Concerto K482 first movement bars 7-12.png|thumb|center|500px|Mozart Piano Concerto K482 first movement bars 7–12.]]"Here we have the unusual sound on the violins providing the bass for the solo clarinets.  The simplicity of the sequence concentrates all our interest on tone-colour, and what follows – a series of woodwind solos – keeps it there.  The orchestration throughout, in fact, has a greater variety than Mozart had wished or needed before, and fits the brilliance, charm, and grace of the first movement and the finale."<ref>Rosen, C. (1971, p. 240) The Classical Style.  London Faber.</ref>

===Beethoven===
Beethoven's innovative mastery of orchestration and his awareness of the effect of highlighting, contrasting and blending distinct instrumental [[timbre|colours]] are well exemplified in the [[Scherzo]] of his [[Symphony No. 2 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 2]]. [[George Grove]] asks us to note "the sudden contrasts both in amount and quality of sound… we have first the full orchestra, then a single violin, then two horns, then two violins, then the full orchestra again, all within the space of half-a-dozen bars."<ref>Grove, G. (1896, p. 34) ''Beethoven and his Nine Symphonies''.  London, Novello.</ref> "The scoring, a bar of this followed by a bar of that, is virtually unique, and one can visualize chaos reigning at the first rehearsal when many a player must have been caught unprepared."<ref>Hopkins, A. (1981, p. 51)  ''The Nine Symphonies of Beethoven''. London, Heinemann.</ref> [[File:Symphony 2 scherzo bars 1-8.wav|thumb|Beethoven, Symphony 2 scherzo bars 1-8]][[File:Symphony 2 scherzo bars 1-9.png|thumb|center|500px|Symphony 2 scherzo bars 1-8]]

Another demonstration of Beethoven's consummate skill at obtaining the maximum variety out of seemingly unprepossessing and fairly simple material can be found in the first movement of the [[Beethoven Piano Concerto No. 5|Piano Concerto No. 5]] in E flat ('The Emperor') Opus 73 (1810). The [[sonata form|second subject of the sonata form]] is a deceptively simple tune that, according to Fiske (1970, p.&nbsp;41) "is limited to notes playable on the horns for which it must have been specially designed."<ref>Fiske, R. (1970), ''Beethoven Concertos and Overtures''.  London, BBC.</ref> This theme appears in five different orchestrations throughout the movement, with changes of [[Mode (music)|mode]] (major to minor), [[Dynamics (music)|dynamics]] ([[forte (music)|forte]] to [[Dynamics (music)|pianissimo]]) and a blending of instrumental [[Timbre|colour]] that ranges from boldly stated [[tutti]] passages to the most subtle and differentiated episodes, where instrumental sounds are combined often in quite unexpected ways:[[File:Second subject theme from the first movement of Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 5 (Emperor).wav|thumb|Second subject theme from the first movement of Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 5 (Emperor)]][[File:Subsidiary theme from the first movement of beethoven's Piano Conxcert No. 5 (Emperor).png|thumb|center|600px|Second subject theme from the first movement of Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 5 (Emperor)]]

The theme first appears in the minor mode during the orchestral introduction, performed using [[staccato]] articulation and orchestrated in the most delicate and enchanting colours:[[File:Minor version of the theme.wav|thumb|Minor version of the theme]][[File:Minor version 1.png|thumb|center|500px|Minor version of the theme.]] This is followed by a more straightforward version in the major key, with horns accompanied by strings.  The theme is now played [[legato]] by the horns, accompanied by a sustained [[pedal point]] in the bassoons.  The violins simultaneously play an elaborated version of the theme.  (See also [[heterophony]].)  The timpani and [[pizzicato]] lower strings add further colour to this variegated palette of sounds. "Considering that the notes are virtually the same the difference in effect is extraordinary":<ref>Fiske, R. (1970, p. 41), ''Beethoven Concertos and Overtures''.  London, BBC.</ref>[[File:Major version of the theme, with horns playing the melody.wav|thumb|Major version of the theme, with horns playing the melody]][[File:Major version of the theme.png|thumb|center|500px|Major version of the theme, with horns playing the melody.]] When the solo piano enters, its right hand plays a variant of the minor version of the theme in a [[Tuplet|triplet]] rhythm, with the backing of pizzicato (plucked) strings on the off-beats:[[File:Minor version of the theme, with piano right hand elaborating the melody in triplets.wav|thumb|Minor version of the theme, with piano right hand elaborating the melody in triplets]][[File:Minor version 2 - piano.png|thumb|center|500px|Minor key version of the theme, with piano right hand elaborating the melody in triplets.]] This is followed by a bold ''[[tutti]]'' statement of the theme, "with the whole orchestra thumping it out in aggressive semi-[[staccato]].<ref>Fiske, R. (1970, p. 42), ''Beethoven Concertos and Overtures''.  London, BBC.</ref> [[File:Tutti statement of the theme.wav|thumb|Tutti statement of the theme]]:[[File:Tutti version in major.png|thumb|center|500px|Tutti statement of the theme.]] The minor version of the theme also appears in the [[cadenza]], played staccato by the solo piano:[[File:Solo piano statement of theme in the cadenza.wav|thumb|Solo piano statement of theme in the cadenza]][[File:Cadenza.png|thumb|center|500px|Solo piano statement of theme in the cadenza.]] This is followed, finally, by a restatement of the major key version, featuring horns playing legato, accompanied by pizzicato strings and [[filigree]] arpeggio figuration in the solo piano:[[File:Final statement of the theme in a major key by the horns after the end of the cadenza.wav|thumb|Final statement of the theme in a major key by the horns after the end of the cadenza]][[File:Major version in cadenza.png|thumb|center|500px|Final statement of the theme in a major key by the horns after the end of the cadenza.]] Fiske (1970) says that Beethoven shows "a superb flood of invention" through these varied treatments.  "The variety of moods this theme can convey is without limit."<ref>Fiske, R. (1970, p. 42), ''Beethoven Concertos and Overtures''.  London, BBC.</ref>

===Berlioz===

The most significant orchestral innovator of the early 19th century was Hector [[Berlioz]].  (The composer was also the author of a ''[[Treatise on Instrumentation]]''.) "He was drawn to the orchestra as his chosen medium by instinct … and by finding out the exact capabilities and [[timbres]] of individual instruments, and it was on this raw material that his imagination worked to produce countless new sonorities, very striking when considered as a totality, crucially instructive for later composers, and nearly all exactly tailored to their dramatic or expressive purpose."<ref>Macdonald, H. (1969, p. 5) ''Berlioz Orchestral Music''.  London, BBC.</ref> Numerous examples of Berlioz's orchestral wizardry and his penchant for conjuring extraordinary sonorities can be found in his ''[[Symphonie fantastique]]''.  The opening of the fourth movement, entitled "March to the Scaffold" features what for the time (1830) must have seemed a bizarre mix of sounds.  The timpani and the double basses play thick chords against the snarling muted brass: [[File:March to the Scaffold bars 1-4 for audio.wav|thumb|March to the Scaffold from the ''Symphonie fantastique'']][[File:March to the Scaffold bars 1-4.png|thumb|center|500px|Berlioz, March to the Scaffold from the ''Symphonie fantastique'']]

"Although he derives from Beethoven, Berlioz uses features that run counter to the rules of composition in general, such as the chords in close position in the low register of the double basses."<ref>Boulez, P. (203, p. 44) Boulez on Conducting.  London, Faber.</ref>
Berlioz was also capable of conveying great delicacy in his instrumental writing.  A particularly spectacular instance is the "[[Queen Mab]]" scherzo from the {{lang|fr|[[Romeo et Juliette]]}} symphony, which [[Hugh Macdonald (musicologist)|Hugh Macdonald]] (1969, p51) describes as "Berlioz's supreme exercise in light orchestral texture, a brilliant, gossamer fabric, [[prestissimo]] and [[Dynamics (music)|pianissimo]] almost without pause: [[File:Berlioz, Queen Mab Scherzo, opening bars.wav|thumb|Berlioz, Queen Mab scherzo from Romeo et Juliette]][[File:Queen Mab main theme.png|thumb|center|500px|Berlioz, Queen Mab scherzo from Romeo et Juliette]]

Boulez points out that the very fast tempo must have made unprecedented demands on conductors and orchestras of the time (1830), "Because of the rapid and precise rhythms, the staccatos which must be even and regular in all registers, because of the isolated notes that occur right at the end of the bar on the third quaver…all of which must fall into place with absolutely perfect precision."<ref>Boulez, P. (203, p. 37) Boulez on Conducting.  London, Faber.</ref>
Macdonald highlights the passage towards the end of the scherzo where "The sounds become more ethereal and fairylike, low clarinet, high harps and the bell-like antique cymbals…The pace and fascination of the movement are irresistible; it is some of the most ethereally brilliant music ever penned."<ref>Macdonald, H. (1969, p. 51) Berlioz orchestral Music.  London, BBC.</ref> [[File:From Berlioz, Queen Mab scherzo.wav|thumb|Berlioz, orchestral texture from Queen Mab scherzo]][[File:Queen mab scherzo p218.png|thumb|center|500px|Berlioz, orchestral texture from Queen Mab scherzo]] The [[New Grove Dictionary]] says that for Berlioz, orchestration "was intrinsic to composition, not something applied to finished music...in his hands [[timbre]] became something that could be used in free combinations, as an artist might use his palette, without bowing to the demands of line, and this leads to the rich orchestral resource of Debussy and Ravel."<ref>MacDonald, H., (2001) "Berlioz", article in Sadie, S. (ed.) ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition.  London, MacMillan.</ref>

===Wagner===

After Berlioz, [[Richard Wagner]] was the major pioneer in the development of orchestration during the 19th century. [[Pierre Boulez]] speaks of the "sheer richness of Wagner's orchestration and his irrepressible instinct for innovation."<ref>Boulez, P. (1986, p. 273) Orientations.  London, Faber.</ref> Peter Latham says that Wagner had a "unique appreciation of the possibilities for colour inherent in the instruments at his disposal, and it was this that guided him both in his selection of new recruits for the orchestral family and in his treatment of its established members. The well-known division of that family into strings, woodwind, and brass, with percussion as required, he inherited from the great classical symphonists such changes as he made were in the direction of splitting up these groups still further." Latham gives as an example, the sonority of the opening of the opera ''[[Lohengrin (opera)|Lohengrin]]'', where "the ethereal quality of the music" is due to the violins being "divided up into four, five, or even eight parts instead of the customary two."<ref>Latham, P. (1926) "Wagner: Aesthetics and Orchestration". Gramophone, June 1926.</ref> [[File:Prelude to Lohengrin condensed score.png|thumb|center|500px|Wagner, Prelude to Lohengrin<ref>{{Cite web |last=((Fledermaus1990)) |date=Jan 22, 2012 |title=Richard Wagner - Lohengrin - Prelude |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lqk4bcnBqls |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230223622/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lqk4bcnBqls |archive-date=Dec 30, 2019 |website=YouTube}}</ref>]] "The A major chord with which the ''Lohengrin'' Prelude begins, in the high register, using [[harmonics]] and held for a long time, lets us take in all its detail. It is undoubtedly an A major chord, but it is also high strings, harmonics, long notes – which gives it all its expressivity, but an expressivity in which the acoustic features play a central role, as we have still heard neither melody nor harmonic progression."<ref>Boulez, P. (2005, p. 361) ''Music Lessons'', trans. Dunsby, Goldman and Whittal, 2018. London, Faber.</ref> As he matured as a composer, particularly through his experience of composing [[Der Ring des Nibelungen|''The Ring'']] Wagner made "increasing use of the contrast between pure and mixed [[Timbre|colours]], bringing to a fine point the art of transition from one field of sonority to another."<ref>Boulez, P. (1986, p. 273) Orientations.  London, Faber.</ref>  For example, in the evocative "Fire Music" that concludes {{lang|de|[[Die Walküre]]}}, "the multiple [[arpeggio|arpeggiations]] of the wind chords and the [[contrapuntal motion|contrary motion]] in the strings create an oscillation of tone-colours almost literally matching the visual flickering of the flames."<ref>Boulez, P. (2018, p. 524) ''Music Lessons'', trans. Dunsby, Goldman and Whittal, 2018. London, Faber.</ref>[[File:Wagner Fire Music from Die Walkure 01.wav|thumb|Wagner Fire Music from {{lang|de|Die Walküre}}]][[File:Wagner Fire Music from Die Walkure 02.png|thumb|center|500px|Wagner Fire Music from {{lang|de|Die Walküre}}]][[Robert Craft]] found Wagner's final opera ''[[Parsifal]]'' to be a work where "Wagner's powers are at their pinnacle… The orchestral blends and separations are without precedent."<ref>Craft, R. (1977, p. 82)  Current Convictions. London, Secker & Warburg.</ref>   Craft cites the intricate orchestration of the single line of melody that opens the opera:[[File:Parsifal Prelude Opening 01.wav|thumb|Parsifal Prelude Opening]][[File:Parsifal Prelude Opening.png|thumb|center|500px|Parsifal Prelude Opening]]

"''Parsifal'' makes entirely new uses of orchestral colour… Without the help of the score, even a very sensitive ear cannot distinguish the instruments playing the unison beginning of the Prelude.  The violins are halved, then doubled by the cellos, a clarinet, and a bassoon, as well as, for the peak of the phrase, an alto oboe [cor anglais]. The full novelty of this colour change with the oboe, both as intensity and as timbre, can be appreciated only after the theme is repeated in harmony and in one of the most gorgeous orchestrations of even Wagner's Technicolor imagination."<ref>{{Cite web |last=((DjangoMan1963)) |date=May 13, 2011 |title=Wagner - 'Parsifal' - Act I Prelude (Georg Solti) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AQOfIENN2tk |website=YouTube}}</ref><ref>Craft, R. (1977, p. 91)  ''Current Convictions''. London, Secker & Warburg.</ref>
Later, during the opening scene of the first act of ''[[Parsifal]]'', Wagner offsets the bold brass with gentler strings, showing that the same musical material feels very different when passed between contrasting families of instruments:[[File:Parsifal contrasting groups for audio.wav|thumb|Contrasting orchestral groups from the Prelude to the first Act of Parsifal]][[File:Parsifal contrasting groups.png|thumb|center|500px|Contrasting orchestral groups from the Prelude to first Act of Parsifal]]

On the other hand, the prelude to the opera ''[[Tristan und Isolde|Tristan and Isolde]]'' exemplifies the variety that Wagner could extract through combining instruments from different [[Orchestra|orchestral families]] with his precise markings of [[Dynamics (music)|dynamics]] and [[Articulation (music)|articulation]].  In the opening phrase, the cellos are supported by wind instruments: [[File:Tristan prelude bars 1-7 version for audio.wav|thumb|Wagner, Tristan Prelude, opening]][[File:Tristan prelude bars 1-7.png|thumb|center|500px|Wagner, Tristan prelude, opening.]]

When this idea returns towards the end of the prelude, the [[Timbre|instrumental colors]] are varied subtly, with sounds that were new to the 19th century orchestra, such as the [[cor anglais]] and the [[bass clarinet]].  These, together with the ominous rumbling of the timpani effectively convey the brooding atmosphere: [[File:Tristan prelude closing bars version for audio.wav|thumb|Wagner, Tristan Prelude, closing bars]][[File:Wagner, Tristan prelude closing bars.png|thumb|center|500px|Wagner, Tristan Prelude, closing bars.]]

"It's impressive to see how Wagner… produces balance in his works.  He is true genius in this respect, undeniably so, even down to the working out of the exact number of instruments."  Boulez is "fascinated by the precision with which Wagner gauges orchestral balance, [which] … contains a multiplicity of details that he achieved with astonishing precision."<ref>Boulez, P. (2003, p. 52) Boulez on Conducting.  London, Faber.</ref> According to [[Roger Scruton]], "Seldom since Bach's inspired use of [[obbligato]] parts in his cantatas have the instruments of the orchestra been so meticulously and lovingly adapted to their expressive role by Wagner in his later operas."<ref>Scruton, R. (2016, p. 147) ''The Ring of Truth: The Wisdom of Wagner's'' Ring of the Nibelung.  Penguin Random House.</ref>

===Mahler===
William Austin (1966) says "[[Mahler]] expanded the orchestra, going ahead to a historic climax in the direction already marked by [[Beethoven]], [[Berlioz]] and [[Wagner]]… The purpose of this famous expansion was not a sheer increase in volume, but a greater variety of sound with more nearly continuous gradations… Mahler only occasionally required all his vast orchestra to play together, and his music was as often soft as loud.  Its colours were continually shifting, blending or contrasting with each other."<ref>Austin, W. (1966, p. 123) ''Music in the 20th Century''.  London, Dent.</ref> [[Adorno]] (1971) similarly describes Mahler's symphonic writing as characterised by "massive tutti effects" contrasted with "chamber-music procedures".<ref>Adorno, T.W. (1971, p. 53) ''Mahler, a musical physiognomy''.  Trans. Jephcott.  University of Chicago Press.</ref> The following passage from the first movement of his Symphony No. 4 illustrates this:[[File:Mahler 4 1st movt Fig 5.wav|thumb|Mahler, Symphony No. 4, first movement, Fig 5]][[File:Mahler 4 1st movt Fig 5.png|thumb|center|500px|Mahler, Symphony No. 4, first movement, Figure 5.]] Only in the first bar of the above is there a full ensemble.  The remaining bars feature highly differentiated small groups of instruments.  Mahler's experienced conductor's ear led him to write detailed performance markings in his scores, including carefully calibrated dynamics.  For example, in bar 2 above, the low harp note is marked [[Dynamics (music)|''forte'']], the clarinets, [[Dynamics (music)|''mezzo-forte'']] and the horns [[Dynamics (music)|''piano'']].  Austin (1966) says that "Mahler cared about the finest nuances of loudness and tempo and worked tirelessly to fix these details in his scores."<ref>Austin, W. (1966, p. 123) ''Music in the 20th Century''.  London, Dent.</ref>

Mahler's imagination for sonority is exemplified in the closing bars of the slow movement of the Fourth Symphony, where there occurs what [[Walter Piston]] (1969, p.&nbsp;140) describes as "an instance of inspired orchestration… To be noted are the sudden change of mode in the harmonic progression, the unusual spacing of the chord in measure 5, and the placing of the perfect fourth in the two flutes. The effect is quite unexpected and magical."<ref>Piston, W. (1969) ''Orchestration''.  London, Victor Gollancz.</ref>[[File:Mahler 4 3rd movement Fig 13.wav|thumb|Mahler Symphony No 4, third movement, Figure 13.]][[File:Mahler 4 third movement.png|thumb|center|500px|Mahler Symphony No 4, third movement, Figure 13.]] According to Donald Mitchell, the "rational basis" of Mahler's orchestration was "to enable us to comprehend his music by hearing precisely what was going on."<ref>Mitchell, D. (1975, p.213) ''Gustav Mahler, the Wunderhorn Years''. London, Faber.</ref>

===Debussy===

Apart from Mahler and [[Richard Strauss]], the major innovator in orchestration during the closing years of the nineteenth and the first decades of the twentieth century was Claude [[Debussy]].  According to Pierre [[Boulez]] (1975, p20) "Debussy's orchestration… when compared with even such brilliant contemporaries as Strauss and Mahler… shows an infinitely fresher imagination."  Boulez said that Debussy's orchestration was "conceived from quite a different point of view; the number of instruments, their balance, the order in which they are used, their use itself, produces a different climate."  Apart from the early impact of [[Wagner]], Debussy was also fascinated by music from Asia that according to Austin "he heard repeatedly and admired intensely at the Paris World exhibition of 1889".<ref>Austin, W. (1966, p. 20) ''Music in the 20th century''. London, Dent.</ref>

Both influences inform Debussy's first major orchestral work, ''[[Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune]]'' (1894).  Wagner's influence can be heard in the strategic use of [[silence]], the sensitively differentiated orchestration and, above all in the striking [[half-diminished seventh]] chord spread between oboes and clarinets, reinforced by a [[glissando]] on the harp. Austin (1966, p.&nbsp;16) continues "Only a composer thoroughly familiar with the [[Tristan chord]] could have conceived the beginning of the ''Faune''."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turner |first=Thomas |date=Jan 22, 2011 |title=Claude Debussy, Prélude à l'Après-midi d'un faune |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bYyK922PsUw |website=YouTube}}</ref><ref>Austin, W. (1966, p. 16) ''Music in the 20th century''.  London, Dent.</ref>[[File:Prelude a l'apres midi opening.png|thumb|center|600px|Debussy, Prelude a l'apres midi d'un faune, opening bars]]

Later in the ''Faune'', Debussy builds a complex texture, where, as Austin says, "[[Polyphony]] and orchestration overlap...He adds to all the devices of [[Mozart]], [[Carl Maria von Weber|Weber]], [[Berlioz]] and Wagner the possibilities that he learned from the [[heterophonic]] music of the Far East.... The first harp varies the flute parts in almost the same way that the smallest bells of a [[Java]]nese [[gamelan]] vary the slower basic melody."<ref>Austin, W. (1966, p. 20) ''Music in the 20th century''.  London, Dent.</ref>[[File:Prelude a l'apres midi, from Fig 7- short score version.png|thumb|center|700px|Debussy, Prelude a l'apres midi d'un faune, Figure 7, bars 11-13]]

Debussy's final orchestral work, the enigmatic ballet ''[[Jeux]]'' (1913) was composed nearly 20 years after the ''Faune''.  The opening bars feature divided strings, spread over a wide range, a harp doubling horns with the addition of the bell-like [[celesta]] in the 5th bar and the sultry voicing of the [[whole tone scale|whole tone]] chords in the woodwind:[[File:Jeux opening bars.png|thumb|center|500px|Debussy, Jeux opening bars<ref>{{Cite web |last=Queen Cure Sky |date=Jun 5, 2014 |title=BOULEZ, Debussy JEUX 　1966 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x8qP_2i3HYA |website=YouTube}}</ref>]]

Jensen (2014, p.&nbsp;228) says "Perhaps the greatest marvel of ''Jeux'' is its orchestration.  While working on the piano score, Debussy wrote: 'I am thinking of that orchestral colour which seems to be illuminated from behind, and for which there are such marvellous displays in ''[[Parsifal]]''{{'}}  The idea, then, was to produce timbre without glare, subdued... but to do so with clarity and precision."<ref>Jensen, E.F. (2014) ''Debussy''.  Oxford University Press.</ref>