Editing Obesity (section)

===Mortality===
Obesity is one of the leading [[preventable causes of death]] worldwide.<ref name=Barn1999>{{cite journal | vauthors = Barness LA, Opitz JM, Gilbert-Barness E | title = Obesity: genetic, molecular, and environmental aspects | journal = American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part A | volume = 143A | issue = 24 | pages = 3016–34 | date = December 2007 | pmid = 18000969 | doi = 10.1002/ajmg.a.32035 | s2cid = 7205587 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mokdad AH, Marks JS, Stroup DF, Gerberding JL | title = Actual causes of death in the United States, 2000 | journal = JAMA | volume = 291 | issue = 10 | pages = 1238–45 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 15010446 | doi = 10.1001/jama.291.10.1238 | s2cid = 14589790 }}</ref><ref name=Allison>{{cite journal | vauthors = Allison DB, Fontaine KR, Manson JE, Stevens J, VanItallie TB | title = Annual deaths attributable to obesity in the United States | journal = JAMA | volume = 282 | issue = 16 | pages = 1530–8 | date = October 1999 | pmid = 10546692 | doi = 10.1001/jama.282.16.1530 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The mortality risk is lowest at a BMI of 20–25&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aune D, Sen A, Prasad M, Norat T, Janszky I, Tonstad S, Romundstad P, Vatten LJ | title = BMI and all cause mortality: systematic review and non-linear dose-response meta-analysis of 230 cohort studies with 3.74 million deaths among 30.3 million participants | journal = BMJ | volume = 353 | pages = i2156 | date = May 2016 | pmid = 27146380 | pmc = 4856854 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.i2156 }}</ref><ref name=Lancet2009>{{cite journal | vauthors = Whitlock G, Lewington S, Sherliker P, Clarke R, Emberson J, Halsey J, Qizilbash N, Collins R, Peto R | title = Body-mass index and cause-specific mortality in 900 000 adults: collaborative analyses of 57 prospective studies | journal = Lancet | volume = 373 | issue = 9669 | pages = 1083–96 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 19299006 | pmc = 2662372 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60318-4 }}</ref><ref name=Lancet2016Mort/> in non-smokers and at 24–27&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup> in current smokers, with risk increasing along with changes in either direction.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Calle EE, Thun MJ, Petrelli JM, Rodriguez C, Heath CW | title = Body-mass index and mortality in a prospective cohort of U.S. adults | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 341 | issue = 15 | pages = 1097–105 | date = October 1999 | pmid = 10511607 | doi = 10.1056/NEJM199910073411501 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name=Euro2008>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pischon T, Boeing H, Hoffmann K, Bergmann M, Schulze MB, Overvad K, van der Schouw YT, Spencer E, Moons KG, Tjønneland A, Halkjaer J, Jensen MK, Stegger J, Clavel-Chapelon F, Boutron-Ruault MC, Chajes V, Linseisen J, Kaaks R, Trichopoulou A, Trichopoulos D, Bamia C, Sieri S, Palli D, Tumino R, Vineis P, Panico S, Peeters PH, May AM, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, van Duijnhoven FJ, Hallmans G, Weinehall L, Manjer J, Hedblad B, Lund E, Agudo A, Arriola L, Barricarte A, Navarro C, Martinez C, Quirós JR, Key T, Bingham S, Khaw KT, Boffetta P, Jenab M, Ferrari P, Riboli E | title = General and abdominal adiposity and risk of death in Europe | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 359 | issue = 20 | pages = 2105–20 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 19005195 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa0801891 | s2cid = 23967973 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This appears to apply in at least four continents.<ref name=Lancet2016Mort>{{cite journal |collaboration=The Global BMI Mortality Collaboration |vauthors = Di Angelantonio E, Bhupathiraju S, Wormser D, Gao P, Kaptoge S, Berrington de Gonzalez A, Cairns BJ, Huxley R, Jackson C, Joshy G, Lewington S, Manson JE, Murphy N, Patel AV, Samet JM, Woodward M, Zheng W, Zhou M, Bansal N, Barricarte A, Carter B, Cerhan JR, Smith GD, Fang X, Franco OH, Green J, Halsey J, Hildebrand JS, Jung KJ, Korda RJ, McLerran DF, Moore SC, O'Keeffe LM, Paige E, Ramond A, Reeves GK, Rolland B, Sacerdote C, Sattar N, Sofianopoulou E, Stevens J, Thun M, Ueshima H, Yang L, Yun YD, Willeit P, Banks E, Beral V, Chen Z, Gapstur SM, Gunter MJ, Hartge P, Jee SH, Lam TH, Peto R, Potter JD, Willett WC, Thompson SG, Danesh J, Hu FB | title = Body-mass index and all-cause mortality: individual-participant-data meta-analysis of 239 prospective studies in four continents | journal = Lancet | volume = 388 | issue = 10046 | pages = 776–86 | date = August 2016 | pmid = 27423262 | pmc = 4995441 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30175-1 }}</ref> Other research suggests that the association of BMI and waist circumference with mortality is U- or J-shaped, while the association between [[waist-to-hip ratio]] and [[waist-to-height ratio]] with mortality is more positive.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Carmienke S, Freitag MH, Pischon T, Schlattmann P, Fankhaenel T, Goebel H, Gensichen J | title = General and abdominal obesity parameters and their combination in relation to mortality: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis | journal = European Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 67 | issue = 6 | pages = 573–85 | date = June 2013 | pmid = 23511854 | doi = 10.1038/ejcn.2013.61 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In Asians the risk of negative health effects begins to increase between 22 and 25&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup>.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Appropriate body-mass index for Asian populations and its implications for policy and intervention strategies | journal = Lancet | volume = 363 | issue = 9403 | pages = 157–63 | date = January 2004 | pmid = 14726171 | doi = 10.1016/s0140-6736(03)15268-3 | author1 = WHO Expert Consultation | s2cid = 15637224 }}</ref> In 2021, the [[World Health Organization]] estimated that obesity caused at least 2.8 million deaths annually.<ref>{{cite web |title=Obesity |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/facts-in-pictures/detail/6-facts-on-obesity |website=who.int |access-date=9 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> On average, obesity reduces life expectancy by six to seven&nbsp;years,<ref name=HaslamJames/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Peeters A, Barendregt JJ, Willekens F, Mackenbach JP, Al Mamun A, Bonneux L | title = Obesity in adulthood and its consequences for life expectancy: a life-table analysis | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine | volume = 138 | issue = 1 | pages = 24–32 | date = January 2003 | pmid = 12513041 | doi = 10.7326/0003-4819-138-1-200301070-00008 | hdl = 1765/10043 | s2cid = 8120329 | url = http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:114024/n138_1_4.pdf | hdl-access = free }}</ref> a BMI of 30–35&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup> reduces life expectancy by two to four years,<ref name=Lancet2009/> while severe obesity (BMI&nbsp;≥&nbsp;40&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup>) reduces life expectancy by ten years.<ref name=Lancet2009/>