Editing Oak Ridge National Laboratory (section)

==Areas of research==
ORNL conducts [[research and development]] activities that span a wide range of scientific disciplines. Many research areas have a significant overlap with each other; researchers often work in two or more of the fields listed here. The laboratory's major research areas are described briefly below.
* [[Chemistry|Chemical sciences]]: ORNL conducts both fundamental and applied research in numerous areas, including [[catalysis]], [[surface science]] and [[surface chemistry|interfacial chemistry]]; molecular transformations and fuel chemistry; heavy element chemistry and radioactive materials characterization; aqueous solution chemistry and [[geochemistry]]; [[mass spectrometry]] and laser spectroscopy; separations chemistry; materials chemistry including synthesis and characterization of [[polymers]] and other soft materials; chemical biosciences; and [[neutron scattering|neutron science]].
* [[Electron microscope|Electron microscopy]]: the program investigates key issues in [[Condensed matter physics|condensed matter]], [[materials science|materials]], chemical and [[nanotechnology|nanosciences]].
* [[Nuclear medicine]]: research is focused on the development of improved reactor production and processing methods to provide medical [[radiopharmacology|radioisotopes]], the development of new radionuclide generator systems, the design and evaluation of new radiopharmaceuticals for applications in nuclear medicine, and [[oncology]].
* [[Physics]]: research is focused primarily on studies of the fundamental properties of [[matter]] at the [[atom]]ic, [[atomic nucleus|nuclear]], and [[subatomic particle|subnuclear]] levels and the development of experimental devices in support of these studies.
* Population: ORNL provides federal, state and international organizations with a gridded population database, called Landscan,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/landscan |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121214080907/http://www.ornl.gov/landscan |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 14, 2012 |title=LandScan Home |publisher=Ornl.gov |access-date=July 14, 2012 }}</ref> for estimating ambient population. LandScan is a [[Raster graphics|raster image]], or grid, of population counts, which provides human population estimates every 30 x 30 arc seconds, which translates roughly to population estimates for 1 kilometer square windows or grid cells at the Equator, with cell width decreasing at higher latitudes.<ref>LandScan Home, [http://www.ornl.gov/sci/landscan/ ornl.gov]</ref> Though many population datasets exist, LandScan is the best spatial population dataset, updated annually. Landscan data are accessible through [[GIS]] applications and a [[USAID]] public domain application called Population Explorer.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.populationexplorer.com/ |title=Populationexplorer.com |publisher=Populationexplorer.com |access-date=July 14, 2012}}</ref>

===Energy===
The laboratory has a long history of energy research; nuclear reactor experiments have been conducted since the end of World War II in 1945. Because of the availability of reactors and high-performance computing resources, an emphasis on improving the efficiency of nuclear reactors is present.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nsed/division_fcid.shtml |title=Fuel Cycle and Isotopes Division |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=February 6, 2013 |archive-date=February 1, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201091901/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nsed/division_fcid.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="rnsd">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nsed/rnsd/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110521030833/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nsed/rnsd/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 21, 2011 |title=Reactor and Nuclear Systems Division |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=February 6, 2013 }}</ref> The programs develop more efficient materials, more accurate simulations of aging reactor cores, sensors and controls as well as safety procedures for regulatory authorities.<ref name=rnsd/>

The Energy Efficiency and Electricity Technologies Program aims to improve [[Air pollution in the United States|air quality in the US]] and reduce dependence on foreign oil supplies.<ref name="eetp">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/ees/factsheets/fs_eere.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816060313/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/ees/factsheets/fs_eere.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 16, 2007 |title=Energy Efficiency and Electricity Technologies Program Fact Sheet |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=February 6, 2013 }}</ref> There are three key areas of research: electricity, manufacturing and mobility. The electricity division focuses on reducing electricity consumption and finding alternative sources for production. Buildings, which account for 39% of US electricity consumption as of 2012, are a key area of research as the program aims to create affordable, [[carbon-neutral]] homes.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/eere/research_building.shtml |title=Program Areas – Building Technologies |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=February 6, 2013}}</ref> Research also takes place into higher efficiency [[Solar panel|solar panels]], [[Geothermal power|geothermal electricity]] and [[Geothermal heating|heating]], lower cost [[Wind turbine|wind generators]], and the economic and environmental feasibility of potential [[Hydroelectricity|hydro power plants]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/eere/research_wind_hydro.shtml |title=Wind & Water Power Program |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=February 6, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/eere/research_geothermal.shtml |title=Geothermal Technologies |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=February 6, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/eere/research_solar.shtml |title=Solar Energy Technologies |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=February 6, 2013}}</ref>

The Fusion Energy Division pursues short-term goals to develop components such as [[High-temperature superconductivity|high-temperature superconductors]], high-speed hydrogen pellet injectors, and suitable materials for future fusion research.<ref name="ornlfus">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nsed/factsheets/fs_fusion_energy.pdf |title=Fusion Energy Division Fact Sheet |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=February 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512172630/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nsed/factsheets/fs_fusion_energy.pdf |archive-date=May 12, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="fed">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nsed/division_fed.shtml |title=Fusion Energy Division |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=February 6, 2013 |archive-date=February 1, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201091912/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nsed/division_fed.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref> Much research into the behaviour and maintenance of plasma takes place at the Fusion Energy Division to further the understanding of [[Plasma (physics)|plasma physics]], a crucial area for developing a fusion power plant.<ref name=ornlfus/><ref name=fed/> The US [[ITER]] office is at ORNL with partners at [[Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory]] and [[Savannah River National Laboratory]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usiter.org/about/ |title=About US ITER |publisher=[[ITER|US ITER]] |access-date=February 6, 2013 |archive-date=June 20, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620111704/https://www.usiter.org/about/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The US contribution to the ITER project is 9.1% which is expected to be in excess of US$1.6&nbsp;billion throughout the contract.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/8103557.stm |title=Fusion falters under soaring costs |last=McGrath |first=Matt |date=June 17, 2009 |publisher=[[BBC]] |access-date=February 6, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.iter.org/procurementsharing |title=ITER Procurement Sharing |publisher=[[ITER]] |access-date=February 6, 2013}}</ref> ORNL researchers participated in developing of an extensive research plan for the US-ITER collaboration detailed in 2022.<ref>{{Cite arXiv |title=Report of the US ITER Research Program Research Needs Workshop |eprint=2303.12094 |last1=Greenfield |first1=Charles |last2=Collins |first2=Cami |author3=Workshop Participants|year=2023 |class=physics.plasm-ph }}</ref>

===Biology===
Biological research covers [[ecology]], [[forestry]],<ref name="NSF NEON 2019">{{cite web | title=Oak Ridge NEON — Open Data to Understand our Ecosystems | website=NSF NEON | date=2019| url=https://www.neonscience.org/field-sites/ornl | access-date=October 16, 2023}}</ref> [[genomics]], [[computational biology]], [[structural biology]] and [[bioinformatics]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/ornlhome/biological_systems.shtml |title=Biological systems |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 22, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118062451/http://www.ornl.gov/ornlhome/biological_systems.shtml |archive-date=January 18, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The BioEnergy Program aims to improve the efficiency of all stages of the [[biofuel]] process to improve the [[energy security]] of the United States.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/bioenergy/role.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100112155740/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/bioenergy/role.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 12, 2010 |title=BioEnergy Program – Our Role |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 22, 2013 }}</ref> The program aims to make genetic improvements to the potential biomass used,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/bioenergy/research_biofeedstocks.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100112155746/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/bioenergy/research_biofeedstocks.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 12, 2010 |title=BioEnergy Program – Biofeedstocks |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 22, 2013 }}</ref> formulate methods for refineries that can accept a diverse range of fuels, and to improve the efficiency of energy delivery both to power plants and end users.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/bioenergy/research_biorefineries.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100112155801/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/bioenergy/research_biorefineries.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 12, 2010 |title=BioEnergy Program – Refineries |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 22, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/bioenergy/research_product.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100112155738/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/bioenergy/research_product.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 12, 2010 |title=BioEnergy Program – Product Delivery |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 22, 2013 }}</ref>

The Center for Molecular Biophysics conducts research into the behaviour of biological molecules in various conditions. The center hosts projects that examine [[cell walls]] for biofuel production,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://cmb.ornl.gov/research/bioenergy |title=Biophysical origins of biomass recalcitrance to hydrolysis |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 23, 2013}}</ref> use neutron scattering to analyse [[protein folding]], and simulate the effect of catalysis on a conventional and [[Quantum mechanics|quantum scale]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://cmb.ornl.gov/research/enzyme-catalysis/mera-merb |title=Enzymatic Mechanisms of MerA and MerB |last=Parks |first=Jerry M. |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 23, 2013 |archive-date=February 16, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216071710/http://cmb.ornl.gov/research/enzyme-catalysis/mera-merb |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://cmb.ornl.gov/research/enzyme-catalysis/cels |title=Catalytic Mechanism of Cellobiohydrolase, CelS, on Cellulose Degradation |last=Saharay |first=Moumita |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 23, 2013 |archive-date=February 16, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216081324/http://cmb.ornl.gov/research/enzyme-catalysis/cels |url-status=dead }}</ref> ORNL is home to a field site for the [[National Ecological Observatory Network]] (NEON), which has a field office nearby. The Department of Energy works closely with the [[Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency]] out of ORNL to monitor forest ecology for the surrounding Appalachians & Cumberland Plateau Domain of NEON.<ref name="NSF NEON 2019" />

===Neutron science===
There are two neutron sources at ORNL; the [[High Flux Isotope Reactor]] (HFIR) and the [[Spallation Neutron Source]] (SNS). HFIR provides neutrons in a stable beam resulting from a constant [[research reactor|nuclear reaction]] whereas SNS, a particle accelerator, produces pulses of neutrons.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://neutrons.ornl.gov/about/ |title=Neutrons at ORNL |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 21, 2013}}</ref><ref name="ORELA">{{Cite web |url=http://www.phy.ornl.gov/nuclear/orela/ |title=The Oak Ridge Electron Linear Accelerator Pulsed Neutron Source |last=Koehler |first=P. E. |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 21, 2013}}</ref> HFIR went [[Critical mass|critical]] in 1965 and has been used for materials research and as a major source of medical radioisotopes since.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://neutrons.ornl.gov/facilities/HFIR/ |title=The High Flux Isotope Reactor at ORNL |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 21, 2013}}</ref> As of 2013, HFIR provides the world's highest constant [[neutron flux]] as a result of various upgrades.<ref name=neutrev/> [[Berkelium]]-249, used to synthesize [[tennessine]] for the first time, was produced in the HFIR as part of an international effort.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/ornlhome/news_items/news_100407.shtml |title=International team discovers element 117 |last=Cabage |first=Bill |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121214052516/http://www.ornl.gov/ornlhome/news_items/news_100407.shtml |archive-date=December 14, 2012 |access-date=January 22, 2013 }}</ref> HFIR is likely to operate until approximately 2060 before the [[reactor pressure vessel]] is considered unsafe for continued use.<ref name="knoxhfir">{{Cite web |last=Munger |first=Frank |date=May 8, 2012 |title=ORNL's High Flux Isotope Reactor may be last reactor to convert to low-enriched fuel |url=http://blogs.knoxnews.com/munger/2012/05/will-ornls-high-flux-isotope-r.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130416040110/http://blogs.knoxnews.com/munger/2012/05/will-ornls-high-flux-isotope-r.html |archive-date=April 16, 2013 |access-date=January 21, 2013 |publisher=Knox News}}</ref>

The SNS has the highest intensity neutron pulses of any human-made neutron source.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://neutrons.ornl.gov/facilities/SNS/ |title=Spallation Neutron Source |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126010612/http://neutrons.ornl.gov/facilities/SNS/ |archive-date=January 26, 2013 |access-date=January 22, 2013 }}</ref> SNS was made operational in 2006 and has since been upgraded to 1&nbsp;megawatt with plans to continue up to 3&nbsp;MW.<ref name="neutrev">{{Cite web |url=http://neutrons.ornl.gov/media/pubs/pdf/2010neutronreview.pdf |title=Neutron Review |date=April 2011 |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016153020/http://neutrons.ornl.gov/media/pubs/pdf/2010neutronreview.pdf |archive-date=October 16, 2014 |access-date=January 22, 2013}}</ref> High-power neutron pulses permit clearer images of the targets, meaning smaller samples can be analysed and accurate results require fewer pulses.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/09/090929181816.htm |title=Spallation Neutron Source First of Its Kind To Reach Megawatt Power |date=October 1, 2009 |website=Science Daily |access-date=January 22, 2013}}</ref>

===Materials===
[[File:Advanced Microscopy Laboratory (49941605241).png|thumb|The Advanced Microscopy Laboratory at ORNL]]
Between 2002 and 2008 ORNL partnered with [[Caterpillar Inc.]] to form a new material for their diesel engines that can withstand large temperature fluctuations.<ref name="CF8C">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/cf8cplus/pdf/09-G01217_Steel.pdf |title=New Steel Advances Engine Exhaust System |date=February 2010 |publisher=US Department of Energy |access-date=January 19, 2013 |archive-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130224034035/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/cf8cplus/pdf/09-G01217_Steel.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The new steel, named CF8C Plus, is based on conventional CF8C stainless steel with added [[manganese]] and [[nitrogen]]; the result has better high–temperature properties and is easier to cast at a similar cost.<ref name=CF8C/> In 2003 the partners received an R&D 100 award from ''R&D magazine'' and in 2009 received an award for "excellence in technology transfer" from the [[Federal Laboratory Consortium]] for the commercialisation of the steel.<ref name=CF8C/>

There is a high-temperature materials lab at ORNL that permits researchers from universities, private companies and other government initiatives to use their facilities. As is the case for all designated user facilities, the resources of the High Temperature Materials Laboratory are available for free if the results are published; private research is permitted but requires payment.<ref name="html">{{Cite web |url=http://www.html.ornl.gov/what.shtml |title=What We Do |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 20, 2013 |archive-date=May 10, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510093547/http://www.html.ornl.gov/what.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences (CNMS) researches the behaviour and fabrication of [[nanomaterials]]. The center emphasises discovery of new materials and the understanding of underlying physical and chemical interactions that enable creation of nanomaterials.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://cnms.ornl.gov/about_cnms/about_cnms.shtm |title=Science At The CNMS |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 22, 2013}}</ref> In 2012, CNMS produced a lithium-sulfide battery with a theoretical energy density three to five times greater than existing [[lithium ion batteries]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://cnms.ornl.gov/news/Liang_AdvFuncMat_2012.shtm |title=High Energy Lithium-Sulfur Batteries |date=June 2012 |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 20, 2013}}</ref>

===Security===
ORNL provides resources to the [[United States Department of Homeland Security]] and other defense programs. The Global Security and Nonproliferation (GS&N) program develops and implements policies, both US based and international, to prevent the [[Nuclear proliferation|proliferation of nuclear material]].<ref name="GSN">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/adm/directorates/gsd/factsheets/GS&N%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf |title=Global Security & Nonproliferation Programs Mission Factsheet |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 23, 2013 |archive-date=October 2, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121002131323/http://www.ornl.gov/adm/directorates/gsd/factsheets/GS%26N%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The program has developed safeguards for nuclear arsenals, guidelines for dismantling arsenals, plans of action should nuclear material fall into unauthorised hands, detection methods for stolen or missing nuclear material, and trade of nuclear material between the US and Russia.<ref name=GSN/> The GS&N's work overlaps with that of the Homeland Security Programs Office, providing detection of nuclear material and nonproliferation guidelines. Other areas concerning the Department Homeland Security include nuclear and radiological forensics, [[Chemical weapon|chemical]] and [[biological agent]] detection using [[mass spectrometry]], and simulations of potential national hazards.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/adm/directorates/gsd/dhs_compentencies.shtml |title=Department of Homeland Security Programs – Key Competencies |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 23, 2013 |archive-date=January 1, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130101220003/http://www.ornl.gov/adm/directorates/gsd/dhs_compentencies.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===High-performance computing===
[[File:Summit supercomputer (44552257460).jpg|thumb|[[Summit (supercomputer)|Summit]], developed at ORNL, was the world's fastest [[supercomputer]] from November 2018 to June 2020.]]
ORNL has been the site of various [[supercomputer]]s, home to the fastest on several occasions.<ref name="ornlreview45">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/v45_3_12/Review_v45n3.pdf |title=ORNL Review Vol. 45 |last1=Brouner |first1=Jennifer |last2=McCorkle |first2=Morgan |year=2012 |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |page=1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130304012345/http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/v45_3_12/Review_v45n3.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2013 |access-date=November 2, 2012 |last3=Pearce |first3=Jim |last4=Williams |first4=Leo }}</ref> In 1953, ORNL partnered with the [[Argonne National Laboratory]] to build [[ORACLE (computer)|ORACLE]] (Oak Ridge Automatic Computer and Logical Engine), a computer to research nuclear physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering.<ref name=timeline/><ref name=ornlreview45 /><ref name="BRL">{{Cite web |url=http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/BRL61-o.html#ORACLE |title=BRL Report 1961 |last=Weik |first=Martin H. |website=Army Project No. 5803-06-002 |publisher=Ballistic Research Laboratories |access-date=November 8, 2012}}</ref> ORACLE had 2048&nbsp;[[Word (computer architecture)|words]] (80&nbsp;[[Kibibit|Kibit]]) of [[Random-access memory|memory]] and took approximately 590&nbsp;microseconds to perform addition or multiplication of integers.<ref name=BRL /> In the 1960s ORNL was equipped with an [[IBM System/360|IBM 360/91]] and an IBM 360/65.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0x3BiWst3CMC |title=Thermal Transmission Measurements of Insulation: A Symposium |last=Tye |first=R.P. |publisher=American Society for Testing & Materials |year=1978 |isbn=978-0803105898 |page=314 |access-date=February 19, 2013}}</ref> In 1995 ORNL bought an [[Intel Paragon]] based computer called the ''Intel Paragon XP/S 150'' that performed at 154&nbsp;[[FLOPS|gigaFLOPS]] and ranked third on the [[TOP500]] list of supercomputers.<ref name=ornlreview45/><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.top500.org/system/172576 |title=XP/S-MP 150 |publisher=[[TOP500]] |access-date=January 8, 2013}}</ref> In 2005 [[Jaguar (supercomputer)|Jaguar]] was built, a [[Cray XT3]]-based system that performed at 25&nbsp;teraFLOPS and received incremental upgrades up to the [[Cray XT5|XT5]] platform that performed at 2.3&nbsp;petaFLOPS in 2009. It was recognised as the world's fastest from November 2009 until November 2010.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.redorbit.com/news/technology/734453/jaguar_rises_on_top500_listing/ |title='Jaguar' Rises on TOP500 Listing |last=Dunlap |first=Darren |date=November 16, 2006 |work=Knoxville News-Sentinel |access-date=November 9, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://top500.org/lists/2009/11/press-release |title=ORNL's Jaguar Claws its Way to Number One |date=November 13, 2009 |publisher=[[TOP500]] |access-date=November 9, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809021315/http://www.top500.org/lists/2009/11/press-release |archive-date=August 9, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Summit was built for Oak Ridge National Laboratory during 2018, which benchmarked at 122.3 petaFLOPS. As of June 2020, Summit was the world's second fastest [clocked] supercomputer with 202,752 CPU cores, 27,648 [[Nvidia Tesla|Nvidia Tesla GPUs]], and 250 Petabytes of storage, having lost the top position to the Japanese [[Fugaku (supercomputer)|Fugaku]] supercomputer.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.top500.org/lists/2018/06/ |title=June 2018 {{!}} TOP500 Supercomputer Sites |website=www.top500.org |language=en |access-date=October 31, 2018}}</ref> In May 2022, the ORNL [[Frontier (supercomputer)|Frontier]] system broke the exascale barrier,<ref>{{Cite web |title=ORNL's Frontier First to Break the Exaflop Ceiling {{!}} TOP500 |url=https://www.top500.org/news/ornls-frontier-first-to-break-the-exaflop-ceiling/ |access-date=2022-09-28 |website=www.top500.org}}</ref> achieving 1.102 exaflop/s using 8,730,112 cores.

Since 1992 the [[National Center for Computational Sciences|Center for Computational Sciences]] has overseen high performance computing at ORNL. It manages the [[Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility]] that contains the machines.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://computing.ornl.gov/nccs.shtml |title=National Center for Computational Sciences |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 19, 2013 |archive-date=January 25, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125203407/http://computing.ornl.gov/nccs.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2012, Jaguar was upgraded to the [[Cray XK7|XK7]] platform, a fundamental change as [[GPU]]s are used for the majority of processing, and renamed [[Titan (supercomputer)|Titan]]. Titan performed at 17.59&nbsp;petaFLOPS and held the number 1 spot on the TOP500 list for November 2012.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.top500.org/blog/lists/2012/11/press-release/ |title=Oak Ridge Claims No. 1 Position on Latest [TOP500] List with Titan |date=November 12, 2012 |publisher=[[TOP500]] |access-date=November 15, 2012 |archive-date=January 21, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121075914/http://top500.org/blog/lists/2012/11/press-release/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Other computers include a 77 node cluster to visualise data that the larger machines output in the ''Exploratory Visualization Environment for Research in Science and Technology'' (EVEREST), a visualisation room with a 10 by 3&nbsp;metre (30 by 10&nbsp;ft) wall that displays 35&nbsp;megapixel projections.<ref name="everest">{{Cite web |url=http://www.knoxnews.com/news/2013/jan/01/ornl-visualization-lab-gets-25m-makeover-adds-3d/ |title=ORNL visualization lab gets $2.5M makeover, adds 3D |last=Munger |first=Frank |date=January 1, 2013 |publisher=Knox News |access-date=September 1, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.olcf.ornl.gov/computing-resources/lens/ |title=Lens |publisher=[[Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility]] |access-date=January 19, 2013 |archive-date=January 2, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102044635/http://www.olcf.ornl.gov/computing-resources/lens/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Smoky is an 80 node Linux cluster used for application development. Research projects are refined and tested on Smoky before running on larger machines such as Titan.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.olcf.ornl.gov/computing-resources/smoky/ |title=Smoky |publisher=[[Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility]] |access-date=January 19, 2013}}</ref>

In 1989 programmers at the Oak Ridge National Lab wrote the first version of [[Parallel Virtual Machine]] (PVM), software that enables [[distributed computing]] on machines of differing specifications.<ref>{{Cite web |url=ftp://ftp.jlab.org/pub/coda/docs/pdf/manuals/pvm_guide.pdf |title=PVM 3 User's Guide and Reference Manual |date=September 1994 |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |page=1 |access-date=November 10, 2012}}</ref> PVM is [[free software]] and has become the de facto standard for distributed computing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=PVM: Parallel Virtual Machine |url=https://www.csm.ornl.gov/pvm/ |access-date=2022-04-12 |website=www.csm.ornl.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.csm.ornl.gov/pvm/ |title=PVM: Parallel Virtual Machine |date=December 5, 2011 |publisher=Computer Science and Mathematics Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070321103208/http://www.parawiki.org/index.php?title=Parallel_Virtual_Machine&redirect=no |archive-date=March 21, 2007 |access-date=November 10, 2012 }}</ref> [[Jack Dongarra]] of ORNL and the [[University of Tennessee]] wrote the [[LINPACK]] software library and [[LINPACK benchmarks]], used to calculate [[linear algebra]] and the standard method of measuring floating point performance of a supercomputer as used by the TOP500 organisation.<ref name=ornlreview45/><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.top500.org/project/linpack |title=The Linpack Benchmark |publisher=[[TOP500]] |access-date=November 10, 2012}}</ref>