Editing Norodom Sihanouk (section)

==Sangkum era==
{{Main|Kingdom of Cambodia (1953–1970)}}

===Abdication and entry into politics===
On 2 March 1955, Sihanouk suddenly abdicated the throne{{sfnmp|Jeldres|2003|1p=61|Jeldres|2005|2p=54}} and was in turn succeeded by his father, [[Norodom Suramarit]].{{sfnp|Jeldres|2003|p=44}} His abdication surprised everyone, including his own parents.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=78}} In his abdication speech, Sihanouk explained that he was abdicating in order to extricate himself from the "intrigues" of palace life and allow easier access to common folk as an "ordinary citizen". According to Osborne, Sihanouk's abdication earned him the freedom to pursue politics while continuing to enjoy the deference that he had received from his subjects when he was king.{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=91}} He also feared being cast aside by the government after discovering that his popularity was manufactured by his own officials.<ref>PRO, FO 371/117124, British Legation Phnom Penh's telegrams 86 and 87 (1955)</ref>{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=78}}

In April 1955, before leaving for a summit with Asian and African states in [[Bandung]], Indonesia, Sihanouk announced the formation of his own political party, the [[Sangkum|Popular Socialist Community]] (Sangkum), and expressed interest in participating in the [[1955 Cambodian general election|general elections]] slated to be held in September 1955. While the Sangkum was, in effect, a political party, Sihanouk argued that the Sangkum should be seen as a political "organisation", and explained that he could accommodate people with differing political orientations on the sole condition that they pledged fealty to the monarchy.{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=93}} The creation of the Sangkum was seen as a move to dissolve the political parties.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=79}}<ref>''Souvenirs doux et amers'', {{p.|218|219}}{{Incomplete short citation|date=September 2023}}</ref>

Sangkum was based on four small, monarchist, rightist parties, including the 'Victorious North-East' party of [[Dap Chhuon]], the [[Khmer Renovation Party]] party of [[Lon Nol]],<ref>Kiernan, B. ''How Pol Pot came to power'', Yale University Press, 2004, p. 158</ref> the People's Party{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=79}} and the [[Liberal Party (Cambodia)|Liberal Party]].{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=82}} At the same time, Sihanouk was running out of patience with the increasingly leftist [[Democratic Party (Cambodia)|Democratic Party]] and the left-wing [[Pracheachon]], as both had refused to merge into his party and had campaigned against him. He appointed as director of national security Dap Chhuon,{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=97}} who ordered the national police to jail their leaders and break up their election rallies.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=83}} When elections were held, the Sangkum received 83 percent of all valid votes. They took up all seats in the National Assembly, replacing the Democrats, which had until then been the majority party.{{sfnp|Jeldres|2005|p=55}} The following month, Sihanouk was appointed as prime minister.{{sfnp|Jeldres|2003|p=68}}

===Premiership (1955–1960)===
[[File:Mao Sihanouk.jpg|thumb|Meeting in Beijing in 1965: ''(from left)'' [[Mao Zedong]], [[Peng Zhen]], Sihanouk, [[Liu Shaoqi]]]]
Once in office, Sihanouk introduced several constitutional changes, including extending suffrage to women, adopting [[Khmer language|Khmer]] as the sole official language of the country{{sfnp|Jeldres|2005|p=58}} and making Cambodia a [[constitutional monarchy]] by vesting [[Executive (government)|policy-making powers]] in the prime minister rather than the king.{{sfnp|Jeldres|2005|p=59}} He viewed socialism as an ideal concept for establishing social equality and fostering national cohesion within newly independent Cambodia. In March 1956, he embarked on a national programme of "[[Buddhist socialism]]", promoting socialist principles on the one hand while maintaining the kingdom's Buddhist culture on the other.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=87}}

Between 1955 and 1960, Sihanouk resigned and retook the post of prime minister several times, citing fatigue caused by overwork.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=91}} The National Assembly nominated experienced politicians such as [[Sim Var]] and San Yun to become prime minister whenever Sihanouk took leave, but they similarly relinquished their posts each time, several months into their term,{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|pp=95, 98}} as cabinet ministers repeatedly disagreed over public policy matters.{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=105}}

In May 1955, Sihanouk had accepted military aid from the US.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=80}} The following January, when he was in the Philippines on a state visit, [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) operatives attempted to sway him into placing Cambodia under [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization]] (SEATO) protection.{{sfnp|Sihanouk|1973|pp=78–79}} US Secretary of State [[John Foster Dulles]] went to great efforts to convince Sihanouk, however he refused because "I considered SEATO an aggressive military alliance directed against neighbors whose ideology I did not share but with whom Cambodia had no quarrel".{{sfnp|Sihanouk|1973|page=75}} Subsequently, Sihanouk began to suspect that the US was attempting to undermine his government and that it was lending covert support to the Democratic party, now without parliamentary representation, for that purpose.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=93}} Sihanouk developed a good impression of China, whose premier, [[Zhou Enlai]], gave him a warm reception on his first visit there in February 1956. They signed a friendship treaty in which China promised {{US$|40{{nbsp}}million|link=yes}} in economic aid to Cambodia.{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=102}}

When Sihanouk returned from China, [[Sarit Thanarat]] and [[Ngo Dinh Diem]], leaders of Thailand and [[South Vietnam]], respectively, both with pro-American sympathies, started to accuse him of pro-Communist sympathies. South Vietnam briefly imposed a trade embargo on Cambodia, preventing trading ships from travelling up the [[Mekong]] river to [[Phnom Penh]].{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=86}} While Sihanouk professed that he was pursuing a policy of [[Neutral country|neutrality]], Sarit and Diem remained distrustful of him, more so after he established formal diplomatic relations with China in 1958.{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=152}}

[[File:Prince_Norodom_Sihanouk_with_Philippine_Vice_President_Carlos_P._Garica,_1956-01-30.jpg|thumb|left|[[Carlos P. Garcia]], the then-[[Vice President of the Philippines]] in 1956 with Sihanouk]]
[[File:V.K._Krishna_Menon_speaking_to_Prince_Norodom_Sihanouk.jpg|thumb|left|Indian Defence Minister [[V. K. Krishna Menon]] is seen pictured with Sihanouk]]
The Democratic party continued to criticize the Sangkum and Sihanouk in their newspaper, much to Sihanouk's consternation.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=92}} In August 1957, Sihanouk finally lost patience, calling out Democrat leaders for a debate. Five of them attended. At the debate, held at the [[Royal Palace of Cambodia|Royal Palace]], Sihanouk spoke in a belligerent tone, challenging the Democrat leaders to present evidence of malfeasance in his government and inviting them to join the Sangkum. The Democrat leaders gave hesitant responses, and, according to American historian [[David P. Chandler]], this gave the audience the impression that they were disloyal to the monarchy.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=93}}

The debate led to the effective demise of the Democratic party, as its leaders were subsequently beaten up by government soldiers, with Sihanouk's tacit approval.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=94}} With the Democrats vanquished, Sihanouk focused on preparing for [[1958 Cambodian general election|general elections]], slated to be held in March 1958. He drafted left-wing politicians, including [[Hou Yuon]], [[Hu Nim]] and [[Chau Seng]], to stand as Sangkum candidates, with a view to winning left-wing support from the Pracheachon.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=95}} The Pracheachon on their part fielded five candidates for the elections. However, four of them withdrew, as they were prevented by the national police from holding any election rallies. When voting took place, the Sangkum won all seats in the national assembly.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=96}}

In December 1958 [[Ngo Dinh Nhu]], Diem's younger brother and chief adviser, broached the idea of [[Bangkok Plot|orchestrating a coup]] to overthrow Sihanouk.{{sfnp|Sihanouk|1973|p=105}} Nhu contacted [[Dap Chhuon]], Sihanouk's [[Ministry of Interior (Cambodia)|Interior Minister]], who was known for his pro-American sympathies, to prepare for the coup against his boss.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=101}} Chhuon received covert financial and military assistance from Thailand, South Vietnam, and the CIA.{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=110}} In January 1959 Sihanouk learned of the coup plans through intermediaries who were in contact with Chhuon.{{sfnp|Sihanouk|1973|p=107}} The following month, Sihanouk sent the army to capture Chhuon, who was summarily executed as soon as he was captured, effectively ending the coup attempt.{{sfnp|Sihanouk|1973|p=108}} Sihanouk then accused South Vietnam and the United States of orchestrating the coup attempt.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=106}}

Six months later, on 31 August 1959, a small packaged lacquer gift fitted with a [[parcel bomb]] was delivered to the royal palace. [[Norodom Vakrivan]], the chief of protocol, was killed instantly when he opened the package. Sihanouk's parents, Suramarit and Kossamak, were sitting in another room not far from Vakrivan. An investigation traced the origin of the parcel bomb to an American military base in Saigon.{{sfnp|Sihanouk|1973|p=110}} While Sihanouk publicly accused [[Ngo Dinh Nhu]] of masterminding the bomb attack, he secretly suspected that the US was also involved.{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=112}} The incident deepened his distrust of the US.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=107}}

===Initial years as Head of State (1960–1965)===
Suramarit, Sihanouk's father, died on 3 April 1960{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=115}} after several months of poor health that Sihanouk blamed upon the shock that his father had received from the parcel bomb attack.{{sfnp|Sihanouk|1973|p=110}} The following day, the Cambodian Crown Council met to choose Monireth as regent.{{sfnp|Jeldres|2005|p=61}} Over the next two months, Sihanouk introduced constitutional amendments to create the new post of Head of State of Cambodia, which provided ceremonial powers equivalent to that of the king. A [[1960 Cambodian policy referendum|referendum]] held on 5 June 1960 approved Sihanouk's proposals, and Sihanouk was formally appointed Head of State on 14 June 1960.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1960/06/14/archives/cambodia-names-ruler-prince-sihanouk-agrees-to-become-chief-of.html|title=Cambodia Names Ruler; Prince Sihanouk Agrees to Become 'Chief of State'|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=14 June 1960|access-date=1 August 2023}}</ref>{{sfnp|Jeldres|2005|p=62}} As the head of state, Sihanouk took over various ceremonial responsibilities of the king, such as holding [[Audience (meeting)|public audiences]]{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=120}} and leading the [[Royal Ploughing Ceremony#Cambodia|Royal Ploughing Ceremony]]. At the same time, he continued to play an active role in politics as Sangkum's leader.{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=144}}

[[File:JFK and Prince Sihanouk in New York, 1961.jpg|thumb|Sihanouk with US President [[John F. Kennedy]] in New York City on 25 September 1961]]
In 1961, Pracheachon's spokesperson, Non Suon, criticized Sihanouk for failing to tackle inflation, unemployment, and corruption in the country. Non Suon's criticisms gave Sihanouk the impetus to arrest Pracheachon leaders, and, according to him, he had discovered plans by their party to monitor local political developments on behalf of foreign powers.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=119}} That same year Sihanouk attended the [[1st Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement]], making Cambodia one of the founding members of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]. In May 1962 [[Tou Samouth]], Pracheachon's secretary-general, disappeared, and its ideological ally, the [[Communist Party of Kampuchea]], suspected that Samouth had been secretly captured and killed by police.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=120}} Sihanouk nevertheless allowed Sangkum's left-wing politicians to run again in the 1962 [[1962 Cambodian general election|general elections]], which they all won.{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=157}} He even appointed two left-wing politicians, Hou Yuon and [[Khieu Samphan]], as secretaries for planning and commerce, respectively, after the election.{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=158}}

In November 1962, Sihanouk called on the US to stop supporting the [[Khmer Serei]], which he believed they had been secretly doing through the CIA. He threatened to reject all economic aid from the US if they failed to respond to his demands,{{sfnp|Peou|2000|pp=125–126}} a threat he later carried out on 19 November 1963.{{sfnp|Sihanouk|1973|p=133}} At the same time, Sihanouk also [[Nationalization|nationalised]] the country's [[entrepot]] trade, banking sector, and distillery industries.{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=161}} To oversee policy and regulatory matters on the country's entrepot trade, he set up the National Export-Import Corporation and Statutory Board, better known as "SONEXIM".{{sfnp|Sihanouk|1973|p=137}}

When Sarit, Diem, and US president [[John F. Kennedy]] died in November and December 1963, Sihanouk rejoiced over their deaths, as he accused them of attempting to destabilise Cambodia. He organised concerts and granted civil servants extra leave time to celebrate the occasion. When the US government protested Sihanouk's celebrations, he responded by recalling the Cambodian ambassador to the US, Nong Kimny.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|pp=136–137}}

In early 1964, Sihanouk signed a secret agreement with [[North Vietnam]] and the [[Viet Cong]], allowing Chinese military aid meant for them to be delivered through [[Sihanoukville Autonomous Port|Sihanoukville's port]]. In turn, the [[Royal Cambodian Army|Cambodian army]] would be paid for delivering food supplies to the Viet Cong, and at the same time skim off 10{{nbsp}}percent of all military hardware supplies.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=140}} In addition, he also allowed the Viet Cong to build a trail through eastern Cambodia, so that their troops could receive war supplies from North Vietnam. The trail later became known as the [[Sihanouk Trail]].{{sfnp|Marlay|Neher|1999|p=160}} When the US learned of Viet Cong presence in eastern Cambodia, they started a bombing campaign,{{sfnp|Sihanouk|1973|p=139}} spurring Sihanouk to sever diplomatic ties with the US in May 1965.{{sfnp|Marlay|Neher|1999|p=160}} As a result of this secret agreement, Communist countries, including China, the [[Soviet Union]], and [[Czechoslovakia]], provided military aid to Cambodia.{{sfnp|Peou|2000|p=124}}

===Continued leadership as Head of State (1966–1970)===
[[File:Sihanouk 1967.jpg|thumb|Sihanouk in 1967]]
In September 1966, [[1966 Cambodian general election|general elections]] were held,{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=187}} and Sangkum legislators with conservative and right-wing sympathies dominated the national assembly. In turn, they nominated [[Lon Nol]], a military general who shared their political sympathies, as prime minister. However, their choice did not sit well with Sihanouk.{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=188}} To counterbalance conservative and right-wing influence, in October 1966 Sihanouk set up a [[state within a state|shadow government]] made up of Sangkum legislators with left-wing sympathies.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=156}} At the end of the month, Lon Nol offered to resign from his position, but was stopped from doing so by Sihanouk.{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=189}}

In April 1967, the [[Samlaut Uprising]] occurred, with local peasants fighting against government troops in Samlaut, [[Battambang Province|Battambang]].{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=164}} As soon as government troops managed to quell the fighting,{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=190}} Sihanouk began to suspect that three left-wing Sangkum legislators{{snds}}Khieu Samphan, Hou Yuon and Hu Nim{{snds}}had incited the rebellion.{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=193}} When Sihanouk threatened to charge Khieu Samphan and Hou Yuon before a military tribunal, they fled into the jungle to join the [[Khmer Rouge]], leaving Hu Nim behind.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=166}}

[[Lon Nol]] resigned as prime minister in early May 1967, and Sihanouk appointed [[Son Sann]] in his place.{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=193}} At the same time, Sihanouk replaced conservative-leaning ministers appointed by Lon Nol with [[technocrats]] and left-leaning politicians.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=166}} In the later part of the month, after receiving news that the Chinese embassy in Cambodia had published and distributed Communist propaganda to the Cambodian populace praising the [[Cultural Revolution]],{{sfnp|Cohen|1968|p=18}} Sihanouk accused China of supporting local [[Chinese Cambodians]] in engaging in "contraband" and "subversive" activities.{{sfnp|Cohen|1968|p=19}}

In August 1967, Sihanouk sent to China his Foreign Minister, [[Norodom Phurissara]], who unsuccessfully urged Zhou to stop the Chinese embassy from disseminating Communist propaganda.{{sfnp|Cohen|1968|p=25}} In response, Sihanouk closed the Cambodia{{nsndns}}Chinese Friendship Association in September 1967. When the Chinese government protested,{{sfnp|Cohen|1968|p=26}} Sihanouk threatened to close the Chinese embassy in Cambodia.{{sfnp|Cohen|1968|p=28}} Zhou stepped in to placate Sihanouk,{{sfnp|Cohen|1968|p=29}} and compromised by instructing its embassy to send its publications to Cambodia's [[Ministry of Information (Cambodia)|information ministry]] for vetting prior to distribution.{{sfnp|Cohen|1968|p=28}}

As relations with China worsened, Sihanouk pursued [[rapprochement]] with the US. He learned that Kennedy's widow, [[Jacqueline Kennedy]], had expressed a desire to see [[Angkor Wat]].{{sfnp|Langguth|2000|p=543}} Seeing this as an opportunity to restore relations with the US, Sihanouk invited her to visit Cambodia and personally hosted her visit in October 1967.{{sfnp|Marlay|Neher|1999|p=162}} Jacqueline Kennedy's visit paved the way for Sihanouk to meet with [[Chester Bowles]], the US ambassador to India. To Bowles, Sihanouk expressed his willingness to restore bilateral relations with the US, hinted at the presence of Viet Cong troops in Cambodia, and suggested he would turn a blind eye should US forces enter Cambodia to attack Viet Cong troops retreating into Cambodia from South Vietnam—a practice known as "''hot pursuit''"—provided that Cambodians were unharmed.{{sfnmp|Osborne|1994|1p=195|Clymer|2013|2pp=14–16}}

Silhanouk told Bowles that he disliked the Vietnamese as a people, saying he had no love for any Vietnamese, red, blue, North or South".{{sfnp|Langguth|2000|p=543}} Kenton Clymer notes that this statement "cannot reasonably be construed to mean that Sihanouk approved of the intensive, ongoing [[Boeing B-52 Stratofortress|B-52]] bombing raids" the US launched in eastern Cambodia beginning in March 1969 as part of [[Operation Menu]], adding: "In any event, no one asked him.&nbsp;... Sihanouk was never asked to approve the B-52 bombings, and he never gave his approval."{{sfnp|Clymer|2013|pp=14–16}} The bombing forced the Viet Cong to flee from their jungle sanctuaries and seek refuge in populated towns and villages.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=173}}

As a result, Sihanouk became concerned that Cambodia might get drawn into fighting in the [[Vietnam War]]. In June 1969, he extended diplomatic recognition to the [[Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam]] (PRGSV),{{sfnp|Sihanouk|1973|p=40}} hoping that he could get the Viet Cong troops under its charge to leave Cambodia should they win the war. At the same time, he also openly admitted the presence of Viet Cong troops in Cambodia for the first time,{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=184}} prompting the US to restore formal diplomatic relations with Cambodia three months later.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=139}}

As the Cambodian economy was stagnating due to systemic corruption,{{sfnp|Osborne|1994|p=205}} Sihanouk opened two casinos{{snds}}in Phnom Penh and Sihanoukville{{snds}}in January 1969.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=185}} While the casinos satisfied his aim of generating state revenues of up to 700 million riels in that year, it also caused a sharp increase in the number of bankruptcies and suicides.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=185}} In August 1969 Lon Nol was reappointed as Prime Minister, with [[Sisowath Sirik Matak]] as his deputy. Two months later, Lon Nol left Cambodia to seek medical treatment, leaving Sirik Matak to run the government. Between October and December 1969, Sirik Matak instituted several policy changes that ran contrary to Sihanouk's wishes, such as allowing private banks to re-open in the country and devaluing the riel. He also encouraged ambassadors to write to Lon Nol directly, instead of going through Sihanouk, angering the latter.{{sfnp|Chandler|1991|p=189}} In early January 1970, Sihanouk left Cambodia for medical treatment in France.{{sfnp|Jeldres|2005|p=70}} Shortly after he left, Sirik Matak took the opportunity to close down the casinos.{{sfnp|Marlay|Neher|1999|p=164}}