Editing Mausolus (section)

== Reign ==

{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| header = Mausolus
| total_width = 300
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Mausolus 1907.jpg
| caption1 = Early 20th century photograph
| image2 = Hekatomid.jpg
| caption2 = Modern photograph
| footer = Statue of a [[Hecatomnus|Hecatomnid]] ruler from the [[Mausoleum at Halicarnassus]], traditionally identified as Mausolus ([[British Museum]])
| footer_align = center
}}

[[File:SATRAPS of CARIA. Maussolos. Circa 377-6-353-2 BC.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Coinage of Maussolos as Achaemenid [[satrap]] of [[Caria]]. Head of [[Apollo]] facing, [[Zeus Labrandos]] standing, legend {{lang|grc|MAYΣΣΩΛΛO}} ("of Mausolus"). {{circa|377/6|353/2}}.<ref>{{cite book |title=CNG: SATRAPS of CARIA. Maussolos. Circa 377/6–353/2 BC. AR Tetradrachm (23mm, 15.13 g, 12h). Halikarnassos mint. Struck circa 370–360 BC. |url=https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=324499}}</ref>]]

Mausolus became [[satrap]] when his father Hecatomnus died in 377/6 BCE. He ruled alongside [[List of coupled siblings#Sibling marriage and incest|his wife, who was also his sister]], [[Artemisia II of Caria|Artemisia]] (known as Artemisia II to avoid confusion with the earlier [[Artemisia I of Caria|Artemisia I Lygdamis]]). Because the two had no children, and incest of this type was not otherwise known in Caria, it is thought that their unusual marriage was entirely symbolic.<ref name="Carney (2005)" /> Although only Mausolus was ever referred to as satrap, it is clear that Artemisia had some political authority as joint [[dynast]] while the two were still alive.<ref name="Carney (2005)" /><ref name="Sebillotte Cuchet 2015">{{cite book |last=Sebillotte Cuchet |first=Violine |editor-last1=Fabre-Serris |editor-first1=Jacqueline |editor-link1=Jacqueline Fabre-Serris |editor-last2=Keith |editor-first2=Alison |title=Women and War in Antiquity |date=2015 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |chapter=The Warrior Queens of Caria (Fifth to Fourth Centuries BCE) |pages=228–246}}</ref>

=== Revolt of the Satraps ===

{{Main|Revolt of the Satraps}}

Mausolus participated in the [[Revolt of the Satraps]], a long and complex affair in which many [[satraps]] in the west of the Achaemenid Empire rebelled against [[Artaxerxes II Memnon]], mostly during the 360s BCE. The Revolt of the Satraps, also called the Great Revolt, was not a coordinated affair, but consisted of multiple separate rebellions throughout Anatolia. Mausolus primarily participated on the side of Artaxerxes, although Greek sources say that he also briefly rebelled against him.

[[Diodorus Siculus]] includes Mausolus in his list of satraps who rebelled against Artaxerxes II.<ref name="Diod. 15.90" /><ref name="Moysey 1975">{{cite thesis |last=Moysey |first=Robert Allen |date=1975 |title=Greek Relations with the Persian Satraps: 371-343 B.C. |publisher=Princeton University}}</ref><ref name="Hornblower 1982" /> Also in this list were [[Tachos]] of [[Egypt#Achaemenid Egypt|Egypt]], [[Ariobarzanes of Phrygia|Ariobarzanes]] of [[Hellespontine Phrygia]], [[Orontid dynasty#Orontid Kings and satraps of Armenia|Orontes]] of [[Mysia]], [[Autophradates]] of [[Lydia (satrapy)|Lydia]], and miscellaneous populations of Anatolia and [[Phoenicia]]. With the majority of Anatolia, [[the Levant]], and Egypt in revolt, Diodorus said that half of Artaxerxes' revenues were cut off from him.<ref name="Diod. 15.90" /> Another participant was [[Agesilaus II|King Agesilaus II]] of [[Sparta]], who was a [[Xenia (Greek)|guest-friend]] of Mausolus.<ref name="Xen. Ages. 2.27">{{cite book |last1=Xenophon |title=Agesilaos |at=2.27 |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=xen.+ages.+2.27&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084|author1-link=Xenophon }}</ref><ref name="Hornblower 1982" />

The most evidence for Mausolus' participation in the Great Satraps' Revolt, however, is on the side of his nominal sovereign. Mausolus, together with Autophradates the satrap of Lydia, led the siege of [[Adramyttium]] in 366 BCE at the request of Artaxerxes. [[Ariobarzanes of Phrygia|Ariobarzanes]] had taken refuge there after Autophradates had driven him out of [[Assos]].<ref name="Xen. Ages. 2.26">{{cite book |last1=Xenophon |title=Agesilaos |at=2.26 |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Xen.+Ages.+2.26&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0210|author1-link=Xenophon }}</ref> According to [[Xenophon]], Mausolus was allegedly persuaded to abandon the siege by Agesilaus, whom Mausolus and Tachos of Egypt provided an escort to escape safely.<ref name="Xen. Ages. 2.27" /> This may be a sign that Mausolus only defied his overlord covertly, as there is no evidence that he actually made war against Artaxerxes.<ref name="Hornblower 1982" /><ref name="Brosius 2006">{{cite book |last1=Brosius |first1=Maria |title=The Persians |date=2006 |publisher=Routledge |location=Abingdon |isbn=0415320895}}</ref>

Diodorus also tells us that Mausolus and Autophradates, who secretly did not pursue Ariobarzanes, assisted Orontes of Mysia in his later rebellion in 362 BCE. Unlike Tachos or Agesilaus, however, Mausolus and Artemisia are mostly absent from narratives of Orontes' revolt, and there is no evidence that they took any concrete action against Artaxerxes II.<ref name="Hornblower 1982" /><ref name="Brosius 2006" />

Mausolus was not punished for his alleged participation in the Revolt of the Satraps, unlike more flagrant rebels such as [[Datames]] or Ariobarzanes. He remained in office after the revolt was squashed in 362/1 BCE and was even rewarded by being given Lycia to govern over.

=== Lycia ===

After the Satraps' Revolt, Mausolus and Artemisia came to rule [[Lycia]], adding this territory to the southeast of Caria to their satrapy. Lycia had first been conquered by the Achaemenids at the same time as Ionia and Caria, by [[Harpagus]], a general under [[Cyrus the Great]].<ref name="Hdt. 1.176">{{cite book |last1=Herodotus |title=Historia |at=1.176 |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.176&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084|author1-link=Herodotus }}</ref><ref name="Bryce 1986">{{cite book |last1=Bryce |first1=Trevor R. |title=The Lycians. Vol. I: The Lycians in Literary and Epigraphic Sources. |date=1986 |publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press |location=Copenhagen |isbn=9788772890234}}</ref><ref name="Keen 1998">{{cite book |last1=Keen |first1=Antony G. |title=Dynastic Lycia. A Political History of the Lycians and their Relations with Foreign Powers c.545-362 B.C. |date=1998 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-10956-8}}</ref> After the time of Harpagus, however, Achaemenid presence in Lycia was minimal and contested by the [[Delian League]]. The country came to be ruled by a series of minor dynasts, such as [[Kuprlli]] and [[Kheriga]] of [[Xanthos]], [[Erbbina]] of [[Telmessos]], and Arppakhu of [[Phellos]].<ref name="Keen 1998" /> [[Pericles, Dynast of Lycia|Pericles]] ([[Lycian language|Lycian]]: 𐊓𐊁𐊕𐊆𐊋𐊍𐊁, ''Perikle'') of [[Limyra]], a dynast based in eastern Lycia, came to dominate all of Lycia in the 370s and 360s BCE, breaking the historical dominance of the western dynasts based in and around Xanthos. He cast himself as a native Lycian fighting for liberation against Persians in western Lycia; one inscription explicitly describes his rival [[Artumpara|Arttum̃para]] as a [[Medes|Mede]] ([[Lycian language|Lycian]]: 𐊀𐊕𐊗𐊗𐊒𐊐𐊓𐊀𐊕𐊀:𐊎𐊁𐊅𐊁, ''Arttum̃para mede'').<ref name="TL 29">{{cite book |last1=Kalinka |first1=Ernst |title=Tituli Asiae Minoris. Volumen 1: Tituli Lyciae |date=1901 |publisher=Alfredi Hoelderi |location=Vindobonae |at=29}}</ref><ref name="Keen 1998" /> Arttum̃para may have been one of two Achaemenid officials in Lycia whom Pericles contested, the other being Mithrapata.<ref name="Keen 1998" /> By rejecting Persian rule in the 370s and 360s BCE, Pericles was participating in the Revolt of the Satraps.<ref name="Diod. 15.90">{{cite book |last1=Diodorus Siculus |title=Bibliotheca historica |at=15.90 |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Diod.+15.90&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126|author1-link=Diodorus Siculus }}</ref> Pericles' domination of an independent Lycia was ended by the [[Autophradates]], the satrap of [[Lydia]], at the end of the great revolt {{circa|362 BCE}}.<ref name="Keen 1998" /> Autophradates ruled Lycia himself for as 'king' and/or 'satrap' (TL 61: 𐊚𐊏𐊚 𐊜𐊑𐊗𐊀𐊇𐊀𐊗𐊀 𐊇𐊀𐊗𐊀𐊓𐊕𐊅𐊅𐊀𐊗𐊁𐊛𐊁, ''ẽnẽ xñtawata Wataprddatehe'', "while Autophradates was king"; [[Tomb of Payava|TL 40d]]: 𐊜𐊖𐊖𐊀𐊅𐊕𐊀𐊓𐊀 𐊓𐊀[𐊕𐊈]𐊀, ''xssadrapa Pa[rz]a'', "Persian satrap").<ref name="TL 61">{{cite book |last1=Kalinka |first1=Ernst |title=Tituli Asiae Minoris. Volumen 1: Tituli Lyciae |date=1901 |publisher=Alfredi Hoelderi |location=Vindobonae |at=61}}</ref><ref name="TL 40d">{{cite book |last1=Kalinka |first1=Ernst |title=Tituli Asiae Minoris. Volumen 1: Tituli Lyciae |date=1901 |publisher=Alfredi Hoelderi |location=Vindobonae |at=40d}}</ref><ref name="Keen 1998" /> Lycia had returned to the Achaemenid control. Autophradates ruled for only a short period, though, and rule of Lycia was transferred to Mausolus sometime in the period {{circa|362|353}} BCE.<ref name="Hornblower 1982" /><ref name="Keen 1998" />

Mausolus ruled Lycia as satrap in the later part of his reign. From this time onwards, independent Lycian coins were no longer struck, and instead coins of Mausolus and his successors circulated in Lycia. Although he did not conquer Lycia, he may have been militarily active there, as [[Stephanus of Byzantium]] tells us that he campaigned in [[Milyas]] to the north of Lycia.<ref name="Keen 1998" /> How Mausolus and Artemisia governed Lycia is not clear. The Pseudo-Aristotelian [[Economics (Aristotle)|''Economics'']] records that Mausolus had a [[Satrap#Medo-Persian|hyparch]] (ὕπαρχος, 'deputy') active in Lycia, although this account is far from trustworthy.<ref name="Keen 1998" /> A later [[Letoon trilingual|trilingual inscription]] shows that their brother [[Pixodarus]] had garrison-commanders in Lycia ({{langx|grc|ἐπιμελητής}}), which may have been true in Mausolus' time as well.<ref name="Keen 1998" />

Mausolus and Artemisia made an alliance with [[Phaselis]], a city at the eastern border of Lycia with [[Pamphilia]], showing the extent of their domain.<ref name="Hornblower M10">{{cite book |last1=Hornblower |first1=Simon |title=Mausolus |date=1982 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780198148449 |at=M10}}</ref> [[Theodectes]] of Phaselis, a [[tragedy|tragic poet]], wrote a play called ''Mausolus'' to honour the satrap at his funeral.<ref name="Hornblower 1982" />

=== Social War ===
{{Main|Social War (357-355 BC)}}

Mausolus and Artemisia cooperated with the rebels against [[Athens]] in the [[Social War (357-355 BC)|Social War]] (357{{en dash}}355 BCE), by which they helped to extend their authority among the Greek islands and cities neighbouring Caria.

After the [[Peace of Antalcidas]] concluded the [[Corinthian War]] in 387 BCE, Artaxerxes II had given control of the Greek cities of Anatolia to his satraps, while guaranteeing the independence of the Greek off the coast of Anatolia. [[Agesilaus II|King Agesilaus II]] of [[Sparta]] was deputised to enforce this peace among the Greeks.<ref name="Cawkwell 1981">{{cite journal |last1=Cawkwell |first1=George |title=The King's Peace |journal=Classical Quarterly |date=1981 |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=69–83 |doi=10.1017/S000983880002108X |jstor=63846 |s2cid=170486439 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/63846}}</ref> The Athenians subsequently formed what is called the [[Second Athenian League]] (in contrast to the earlier [[Delian League]]) as a counterbalance to Spartan [[hegemony]]. Among the Greek communities which founded this alliance in 378 BCE were [[Rhodes]], [[Chios]], and [[Byzantium]]. All three rebelled against Athens in 357 BCE, after the Athenians had begun to collect financial contributions (''syntaxeis'') from their allies and established an aggressive colony (a ''[[cleruchy]]'') on [[Samos]] in the 360s BCE.<ref name="Cawkwell 1981b">{{cite journal |last1=Cawkwell |first1=George |title=Notes on the Failure of the Second Athenian Confederacy |journal=Journal of Hellenic Studies |date=1981 |volume=101 |pages=40–55 |doi=10.2307/629842 |jstor=629842 |s2cid=159818710 |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/629842}}</ref>

[[Demosthenes]] described the outbreak of the Social War is his speech [[On the Liberty of the Rhodians]]: "We were charged by the Chians, Byzantines and Rhodians with plotting against them, and that was why they concerted the last war against us; but ... Mausolus [was] the prime mover and instigator in the business".<ref name="Dem. 15.3">{{cite book |last1=Demosthenes |title=Orations |at=15.3 |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Dem.+15+3&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0070|author1-link=Demosthenes }}</ref><ref name="Cawkwell 1981b" /> In this speech, our main source for Carian involvement in the Social War, Demosthenes makes clear that Mausolus and Artemisia supported the rebels in naval warfare against Athens.<ref name="Radicke 1995">{{cite book |last1=Radicke |first1=Jan |title=Die Rede des Demosthenes für die Freiheit der Rhodier (or. 15) |date=1995 |publisher=B.G. Teubner |location=Stuttgart und Leipzig |isbn=9783598776144}}</ref> Although the precise causes of the Social War are obscure, it may be the case that Mausolus himself incited it in order to expand his sphere of influence into the neighbouring Greek islands of the [[Dodecanese]].<ref name="Hornblower 1982" />

The Social War ended quickly in 355 BCE. The Athenians were already weakened after [[Philip II of Macedon]] captured [[Amphipolis]]; they suffered several naval defeats to the rebels, such as at the [[Battle of Ecbatana]]; and the city was nearly bankrupt.<ref name="Cawkwell 1981b" /> The intervention of [[Artaxerxes III]] set the terms of the peace. Either during or shortly after the Social War, the Carian satraps controlled the Greek islands of Rhodes, Cos, and Chios, in part because they had undermined Athenian authority in the region.<ref name="Hornblower 1982" />

Rhodes, which had previously been governed by a democracy aligned with Athens, came to be ruled instead by an [[oligarchy]] backed by a [[Carian]] garrison.<ref name="Radicke 1995" /> [[Vitruvius]] relates a story about how, when Mausolus died shortly after the end of the Social War, the Rhodian democrats briefly overthrew their Hecatomnid-aligned oligarchy and unsuccessfully rebelled against [[Artemisia II|Artemisia]].<ref name="Vitr. 2.8.14">{{cite book |last1=Vitruvius |title=Ten Books on Architecture |at=2.8.14 |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0073%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D8%3Asection%3D14|author1-link=Vitruvius }}</ref><ref name="Kim 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Patricia Eunji |title=Race, Gender, and Queenship in Book 2 of Vitruvius's de Architectura |journal=Arethusa |date=2022 |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=19–45 |doi=10.1353/are.2022.0001 |s2cid=251574514 |url=https://www.academia.edu/84740951}}</ref>

Mausolus also invaded parts of [[Ionia]] and controlled other 
at undetermined points in his reign. As well as their new capital at [[Halicarnassus]], Mausolus and Artemisia had considerable control over the other Greek cities on the coast of Caria, such as [[Iasos]], [[Miletus]], and [[Cnidus]].<ref name="Hornblower 1982" /> Part of this control had diplomatic elements. For example, the astronomer [[Eudoxus of Cnidus]], who developed a cosmic model of [[concentric spheres]], lived at the court of Mausolus and may have helped steer the politics of Cnidus as the satrap wished.<ref name="Diod. Laert. 8.8">{{cite book |last1=Diogenes Laertius |title=Lives of Eminent Philosophers |at=8.8 |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D8%3Achapter%3D8|author1-link=Diogenes Laertius }}</ref><ref name="Hornblower 1982" /> Mausolus' rule was enforced by violence, though. [[Polyaenus]] reports that Mausolus had deputised his brother [[Idrieus]] to capture the fortified town of [[Heraclea at Latmus|Latmus]]; later, he pretended to return the Latmian hostages which Idrieus had captured, and after winning the trust of the townspeople, ambushing the city at night after all the inhabitants had left its walls to watch his military procession. Separately, the same author writes how Mausolus' sister and wife Artemisia captured the same town by a similar deception, distracting the Latmians with a religious procession of women, [[eunuchs]], and musicians, instead of soldiers.<ref name="Moysey 1975" /><ref name="Hornblower 1982" />

=== Tyrannical reputation ===

Mausolus was not beloved by all his subjects. Mausolus appears as a stereotypical [[Despotism#Ancient Greek|despot]] or [[tyrant]] in the accounts of contemporary Greeks. The [[Economics (Aristotle)|''Economics'']] attributed to [[Aristotle]] tells many stories about the injustice of his rule, in part because he needed to raise funds to pay tribute to the Achaemenid [[King of Kings#Achaemenid usage|Great King]].<ref name="Ps.-Ar. Oec. 1348a">{{cite book |last1=Pseudo-[[Aristotle]] |title=Economics |at=1348a |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0048%3Abook%3D2%3Asection%3D1348a}}</ref> He supposedly deceived the people of [[Mylasa]] by telling them that [[Artaxerxes II Memnon]] was about to attack the unwalled city; after the local elites gave much money to Mausolus so that he could build walls for Mylasa, he told them that omens prevented him from providing anything. The city was not attacked and Mausolus kept his citizens' funds.<ref name="Ps.-Ar. Oec. 1348a" /> [[Polyaenus]] tells a similar story about how he lied to his subjects that Artaxerxes threatened to take dominion; he showed them his treasures, which he would sell to keep it, and so his subjects willingly gave him an immense amount of goods, ignorant of his deception.<ref name="Polyaen. 7.23.1">{{cite book |last1=Polyaenus |title=Strategemata |at=7.23.1|author1-link=Polyaenus }}</ref>

Mausolus' hyparch Condalos was also authoritarian, according to the ''Economics''. While collecting money for Mausolus, Condalos noted that the people of [[Lycia]] wore their hair long, unlike the [[Carians]]. He told his Lycian subjects that Artaxerxes demanded hair to make wigs (προκομία) for [[Achaemenid Empire#Cavalry|his horses]]. Mausolus therefore demanded that the Lycians shave their heads and send him their hair. If the Lycians did not want to shave their heads, they could pay their Carian governors in money instead of hair, and Mausolus could buy hair from the Greeks instead. The entire thing was a sham. No hair was sent anywhere, but Condalos and Mausolus made a lot of money.<ref name="Ps.-Ar. Oec. 1348a" />

Not all of Mausolus' subjects accepted his authoritarian rule easily. A series of inscriptions from [[Iasos]] and [[Mylasa]] record how Mausolus punished nobles who conspired against him.<ref name="I.Iasos 1">{{cite book |last1=Blümel |first1=Wolfgang |title=Die Inschriften von Iasos |date=1985 |location=Bonn |at=1}}</ref><ref name="PHI Iasos 78">{{cite web |title=PHI Iasos 78 |url=https://inscriptions.packhum.org/text/258935?bookid=497&location=1682}}</ref><ref name="I.Mylasa 1">{{cite book |last1=Blümel |first1=Wolfgang |title=Die Inschriften von Mylasa, I. Inschriften der Stadt |date=1987 |location=Bonn |at=1}}</ref><ref name="PHI Mylasa 112">{{cite web |title=PHI Mylasa 112 |url=https://inscriptions.packhum.org/text/261041?bookid=512&location=1682}}</ref><ref name="I.Mylasa 2">{{cite book |last1=Blümel |first1=Wolfgang |title=Die Inschriften von Mylasa, I. Inschriften der Stadt |date=1987 |location=Bonn |at=2}}</ref><ref name="PHI Mylasa 113">{{cite web |title=PHI Mylasa 113 |url=https://inscriptions.packhum.org/text/261042?bookid=512&location=1682}}</ref><ref name="I.Mylasa 3">{{cite book |last1=Blümel |first1=Wolfgang |title=Die Inschriften von Mylasa, I. Inschriften der Stadt |date=1987 |location=Bonn |at=3}}</ref><ref name="PHI Mylasa 114">{{cite web |title=PHI Mylasa 114 |url=https://inscriptions.packhum.org/text/261043?bookid=512&location=1682}}</ref> The most dramatic is from 355/4 BCE, late in Mausolus' reign, when he survived an [[List of heads of state and government who survived assassination attempts|assassination attempt]] by disaffected subjects during the royal procession at the yearly festival at [[Labraunda]].<ref name="I.Mylasa 3" /><ref name="PHI Mylasa 114" /> A similar plot had been thwarted in Mylasa over a decade earlier (367/6 BCE).<ref name="I.Mylasa 1" /><ref name="PHI Mylasa 112" /> Alongside these attempts on Mausolus' life, he also punished a group of brothers who conspired to desecrate a statue of his father Hekatomnos in Mylasa (361/0 BCE).<ref name="I.Mylasa 2" /><ref name="PHI Mylasa 113" /> These same brothers were celebrated in Iasos, where the city granted them [[proxeny]] around this time, perhaps in defiance of Mausolus.<ref name="Fabiani 2013">{{cite book |last=Fabiani |first=Roberta|editor-last1=Brun |editor-first1=Patrice |editor-last2=Cavalier |editor-first2=Laurence |editor-last3=Konuk |editor-first3=Koray |editor-last4=Prost |editor-first4=Francis |title=Euploia. La Lycie et la Carie antiques. Actes du colloque de Bordeaux 5, 6, 7 novembre 2009 |date=2013 |publisher=Ausonius |location=Bordeaux |chapter=Iasos between Maussollos and Athens |pages=312–330 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/5026480}}</ref> Nonetheless, Iasos still punished a series of unknown conspirators against Mausolus in the 360s BCE, putting their property to auction.<ref name="I.Iasos 1" /><ref name="PHI Iasos 78" />