Editing Marshall Space Flight Center (section)

=== Redstone Army Arsenal becomes the Marshall Space Flight Center ===

[[File:army nasa transfer 01.jpg|thumb|left|Ceremony of transfer from Army to NASA July 1, 1960|152x152px]]
[[File:Eisenhower Unveils Marshall Bust - GPN-2000-000059.jpg|thumb|President Eisenhower unveils a bust of George C. Marshall at the space center with help from Marshall's widow, Katherine Tupper Marshall.]]
On July 1, 1960 the Marshall Space Flight Center, or the MSFC, was created out of the old Redstone Arsenal.  The Center was then also placed under the jurisdiction of the recently created NASA, and Wernher von Braun was appointed as the Center's first NASA Director. Eberhart Rees, who was a former associate of von Braun from Germany, was also appointed as von Braun's Deputy for Research and Development. 

At the time of the creation of the MSFC, 4,670 civilian employees, about $100 million worth of buildings and equipment, and {{cvt|1,840|acre|km2}} of land were transferred from AOMC/ABMA to the new MSFC. The official opening date of the MSFC had been July 1, 1960, but its dedication ceremony took place two months later on September 8.  At the dedication ceremony President Eisenhower gave a speech. The MSFC was named in honor of [[General of the Army (United States)|General]] [[George Marshall|George C. Marshall]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Marshall Space Flight Center, ca. 1960s |url=http://encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/m-6352 |access-date=2021-09-14 |website=Encyclopedia of Alabama |language=en |archive-date=2021-09-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914023759/http://encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/m-6352 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The administrative activities in MSFC were led by persons with backgrounds in traditional U.S. Government functions, but all of the technical heads were individuals who had assisted von Braun in the many successes at the MSFC'S predecessor, the [[Army Ballistic Missile Agency|ABMA]], where von Braun had been the Technical Director. The initial technical leaders of the new MSFC had all been former colleagues of von Braun starting back in Germany before World War II.  These technical department and/ or division heads were as follows:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://libarchstor2.uah.edu/digitalcollections/items/show/11087 |title=Various organization charts of NASA-MSFC during 1960-1969 |website=uah.edu |date=September 1964 |access-date=June 6, 2023 |archive-date=June 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607042507/http://libarchstor2.uah.edu/digitalcollections/items/show/11087 |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
*Director – [[Wernher von Braun]]
*Deputy Director for R&D – [[Eberhard Rees|Eberhard F. M. Rees]]
*Reliability Office – H. August Schulze
*Future Projects Office – [[Heinz-Hermann Koelle]]
*Light & Medium Vehicles Office – Hans Hueter
*Saturn Systems Office – O. Hermann Lange
*Technical Program Coordination Office – George N. Constan
*Weapons Systems Office – Werner G. Tiller
*Launch Operations Directorate – [[Kurt H. Debus]]
*Aeroballistics Division – [[Ernst Geissler|Ernst G. Geissler]]. Included the Future Project Branch<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jBoCAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Future+Projects+Branch%22+NASA&pg=PA1 |title=Control, Guidance, and Navigation of Spacecraft |year=1962 |access-date=2020-11-01 |archive-date=2023-07-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721065400/https://books.google.com/books?id=jBoCAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Future+Projects+Branch%22+NASA&pg=PA1 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{RP|1}} until that was dissolved in the mid 1960s.
*Computation Division – [[Helmut Hölzer]]
*Fabrication & Assembly Engineering Division – Hans H. Maus
*Guidance & Control Division – [[Walter Haeussermann|Walter Häussermann]]
*Quality Division – [[Dieter Grau|Dieter E. Grau]]
*Research Projects Division – [[Ernst Stuhlinger]]
*Structures & Mechanics Division – [[William Mrazek|William A. Mrazek]]
*Test Division – [[Karl Heimburg|Karl L. Heimburg]]
{{div col end}}

With the exception of Koelle, all of the technical department and/ or division heads had come to the United States under [[Operation Paperclip]] after working together at [[Peenemünde]]. Von Braun knew well the capabilities of these individuals and had great confidence in them. In the following decade of developing hardware and technical operations that established new levels of complexity, there was never a single failure of their booster designs during crewed flight.{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}

The initial main project at MSFC was the final preparation of a Redstone rocket for [[Project Mercury]] to lift a [[space capsule]] carrying the first American into space. Originally scheduled to take place in October 1960, this was postponed several time and on May 5, 1961, [[astronaut]] [[Alan Shepard]] made America's first [[sub-orbital spaceflight]].{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}

By 1965, MSFC had about 7,500 government employees. In addition, most of the prime contractors for launch vehicles and related major items (including [[North American Aviation]], [[Chrysler]], [[Boeing]], [[Douglas Aircraft]], [[Rocketdyne]], and [[IBM]]) collectively had approximately a similar number of employees working in MSFC facilities.{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}

Several support contracting firms were also involved in the programs; the largest of these was Brown Engineering Company (BECO, later [[Teledyne Technologies#Companies|Teledyne Brown Engineering]]), the first high-technology firm in Huntsville and by this time having some 3,500 employees. In the Saturn-Apollo activities, BECO/TBE provided about 20-million [[man-hour]]s of support. Milton K. Cummings was the BECO president, Joseph C. Moquin the executive vice president, William A. Girdini led the engineering design and test work, and Raymond C. Watson, Jr., directed the research and advanced systems activities. [[Cummings Research Park]], the second largest park of this type in the US, was named for Cummings in 1973.{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}

====Saturn launch vehicles====
On May 25, 1961, just 20 days after Shepard's flight, President [[John F. Kennedy]] committed the US to a lunar landing by the end of the decade.<ref>John F. Kennedy; "Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs." Delivered in person before a joint session of Congress, May 25, 1961</ref> The primary mission of MSFC under the [[Apollo program]] was developing the heavy-lift Saturn family rockets. This required the development and qualification of three new liquid-fueled rocket engines, the [[J-2 (rocket engine)|J-2]], [[F-1 (rocket engine)|F-1]], and [[H-1 (rocket engine)|H-1]]. Additionally, the existing [[RL10]] was improved for use on the Saturn S-IV stage. [[Leland F. Belew]] managed the Engine Development Office.<ref>Bilstein, Roger E.; [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4206/sp4206.htm "Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209041807/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4206/sp4206.htm |date=2021-02-09 }}" NASA History Series;</ref> The F-1 engine is the most powerful single-nozzle liquid-fueled rocket engine ever used in service; each produced 1.5-million-pounds thrust. Originally started by the U.S. Air Force, responsibility for the development was taken over by ABMA in 1959, and the first test firings at MSFC were in December 1963.{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}

The original vehicle, designated [[Saturn I]], consisted of two propulsion stages and an instrument unit; it was first tested in flight on October 27, 1961. The first stage (S-I) had a cluster of eight H-1 engines, giving approximately 1.5-million-pounds thrust total. The four outboard engines were [[Gimbaled thrust|gimbaled]] to allow vehicle steering. The second stage (SIV) had six gimbaled LR10A-3 engines, producing a combined 90-thousand-pounds thrust. Ten Saturn Is were used in flight-testing of Apollo [[Boilerplate (spaceflight)|boilerplate]] units. Five of the test flights also carried important auxiliary scientific experiments.{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}

The [[Saturn IB]] (alternatively known as the Uprated Saturn I) also had two propulsion stages and an instrument unit. The first stage (S-IB) also had eight H-1 engines with four gimballed, but the stage had eight fixed fins of equal size fitted to the sides to provide aerodynamic stability. The second stage (S-IVB) had a single J-2 engine that gave a more powerful 230-thousand-pounds thrust. The J-2 was gimbaled and could also be restarted during flight. The vehicle was first flight-tested on February 26, 1966. Fourteen Saturn 1Bs (or partial vehicles) were built, with five used in uncrewed testing and five others used in crewed missions, the last on July 15, 1975.{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}

The [[Saturn V]], an [[expendable launch system|expendable]] [[Human-rating certification|human-rated]] heavy-lift vehicle, was the most vital element in the Apollo Program. Designed under the direction of [[Arthur Rudolph]], the Saturn V holds the record as the largest and most powerful launch vehicle ever brought to operational status from a combined height, weight, and payload standpoint. The Saturn V consisted of three propulsion stages and an instrument unit. The first stage (S-IC), had five F-1 engines, giving a combined total of 7.5-million-pounds thrust. The S-II second stage had five J-2 engines with a total of 1.0-million-pounds thrust. The third stage (S-IVB) had a single gimballed J-2 engine with 200-thousand-pounds thrust. As previously noted, the J-2 engine could be restarted in flight. The basic configuration for this heavy-lift vehicle was selected in early 1963, and the name Saturn V was applied at that time (configurations that might have led to Saturn II, III, and IV were discarded).{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}

While the three propulsion stages were the "muscle" of the Saturn V, the [[Saturn V Instrument Unit|Instrument Unit]] (IU) was the "brains." The IU was on a 260-inch (6.6-m) diameter, 36-inch (91-cm) high, ring that was held between the third propulsion stage and the LM. It contained the basic guidance system components – a stable platform, accelerometers, a digital computer, and control electronics – as well as radar, telemetry, and other units. Basically the same IU configuration was used on the Saturn I and IB. With IBM as the prime contractor, the IU was the only full Saturn component manufactured in Huntsville.{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}

The first Saturn V test flight was made on November 9, 1967. On July 16, 1969, as its crowning achievement in the Apollo space program, a Saturn V vehicle lifted the Apollo 11 spacecraft and three astronauts on their journey to the Moon. Other Apollo launches continued through December 6, 1972. The last Saturn V flight was on May 14, 1973, in the Skylab Program (described later). A total of 15 Saturn Vs were built; 13 functioned flawlessly, and the other two remain unused.{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}

====Fabrication and test facilities====
Wernher von Braun believed that the personnel designing the space vehicles should have direct, hands-on participation in the building and testing of the hardware. For this, MSFC had facilities where prototypes of every type of Saturn vehicle were fabricated. Large, special-purpose computers were used in the checkout procedures. Static test stands had been constructed at ABMA for the Redstone and Jupiter rockets. In 1961, the Jupiter stand was modified to test Saturn 1 and 1B stages. A number of other test stands followed, the largest being the [[Saturn V Dynamic Test Stand]] completed in 1964. At {{cvt|475|ft|m}} in height, the entire Saturn V could be accommodated. Also completed in 1964, the S1C Static Test Stand was for live firing of the five F-1 engines of the first stage. Delivering a total of 7.5-million-pounds thrust, the tests produced earthquake-like rumbles throughout the Huntsville area and could be heard as far as {{cvt|100|mi|km}} away.{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}

As the Saturn activities progressed, external facilities and factories were needed. In 1961, The Michoud Rocket Factory near New Orleans, Louisiana, was selected as the Saturn V rocket manufacturing site. A {{cvt|13,500|acre|km2}} isolated area in [[Hancock County, Mississippi]] was selected to conduct Saturn tests. Known as the Mississippi Test Facility (later renamed the [[John C. Stennis Space Center]]), this was primarily to test the vehicles built at the [[Michoud Assembly Facility|rocket factory]].{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}

====Early scientific and engineering research====
From the start, MSFC has had strong research projects in science and engineering. Two of the early activities, Highwater and Pegasus, were performed on a non-interference basis while testing the Saturn I vehicle.{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}

In [[Project Highwater]], a dummy Saturn I second stage was filled with {{convert|23,000|USgal|m3}} of water as ballast. After burnout of the first stage, explosive charges released the water into the upper atmosphere. The project answered questions about the diffusion of liquid propellants in the event that a rocket was destroyed at high altitude. Highwater experiments were carried out in April and November 1962.{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}

Under the [[Pegasus satellite program|Pegasus Satellite Program]], the Saturn I second stage was instrumented to study the frequency and penetration depth of [[micrometeoroid]]s. Two large panels were folded into the empty stage and unfolded in orbit, presenting 2,300&nbsp;ft<sup>2</sup> (210-m<sup>2</sup>) of instrumented surface. Three Pegasus satellites were launched during 1965, with each one staying in orbit from 3 to 13 years.{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}

=====Lunar exploration=====
[[File:Lunar Roving Vehicle Mobility Test Article Dress Test.jpg|thumb|[[Lunar Roving Vehicle]] test article on test track]]
There were six Apollo missions that landed on the Moon: [[Apollo 11]], [[Apollo 12|12]], [[Apollo 14|14]], [[Apollo 15|15]], [[Apollo 16|16]], and [[Apollo 17|17]]. [[Apollo 13]] had been intended as a landing, but only circled the Moon and returned to Earth after an oxygen tank ruptured and crippled power in the CSM. Except for Apollo 11, all of the missions carried an [[Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package]] (ALSEP), composed of equipment for seven scientific experiments plus a central remote control station with a [[radioisotope thermoelectric generator]] (RTG). Scientists from MSFC were among the co-investigators.{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}

The [[Lunar Roving Vehicle]] (LRV), popularly known as the "Moon Buggy," was developed at MSFC to provide transportation for exploring a limited amount of the Moon's surface. Not intended in the original planning, by 1969 it became clear that an LRV would be needed to maximize the scientific returns. An LRV was carried on the last three missions, allowing an area similar in size to Manhattan Island to be explored. Outbound they carried an ALSEP to be set up; on the return trip, they carried more than 200 pounds of lunar rock and soil samples. [[Saverio "Sonny" Morea]] was the LRV project manager at MSFC.<ref>Morea, Saverio F; [http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/lunar/LRV_Historical_Perspective.pdf "The Lunar Roving Vehicle – Historical Perspective"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320195005/http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/lunar/LRV_Historical_Perspective.pdf |date=2012-03-20 }}</ref>

=====Skylab and ATM=====
[[File:Serpentuator.jpg|thumb|MSFC engineers tested this articulated arm developed, but not used, for Skylab at a MSFC flat floor facility.]]
[[File:Neutral Buoyancy Space Simulator.jpg|thumb|MSFC used the Neutral Buoyancy Facility to test Skylab procedures. Here, engineers are testing procedures for repairing Skylab.]]

The [[Apollo Applications Program]] (AAP) involved science-based crewed space missions using surplus Apollo equipment. The lack of interest by Congress resulted in most of the proposed activities being abandoned, but an orbital workshop remained of interest.{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}} In December 1965, MSFC was authorized to begin the Orbital Workshop as a formal project. At a meeting at MSFC on August 19, 1966, [[George Mueller (NASA)|George E. Mueller]], NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, pinned down the final concept for the major elements. MSFC was assigned responsibility for the development of the orbiting space station hardware as well as overall systems engineering and integration.{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}

For testing and mission simulation, a {{convert|75|ft|m|adj=on}}-diameter water-filled tank, the [[Neutral Buoyancy Simulator|Neutral Buoyancy Facility]], was opened at MSFC in March 1968. Engineers and astronauts used this underwater facility to simulate the [[weightlessness]] (or zero-g) environment of space. This was particularly used in training astronauts in activities in zero-g work, especially [[Extra-vehicular activity|spacewalks]].{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}

The Orbital Workshop was built into the propellant tanks of a Saturn V third stage, being fully refitted on the ground. It was renamed [[Skylab]] in February 1970. Two were built – one for flight and the other for testing and mission simulation in the Neutral Buoyancy Facility. Leland F Belew served for eight years as the overall Skylab program director.{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}

Another AAP project that survived was a solar observatory, originally intended to be a deployable attachment to the Apollo spacecraft. Called the [[Apollo Telescope Mount]] (ATM), the project was assigned to MSFC in 1966. As the Orbital Workshop matured into the Skylab, the ATM was added as an appendage, but the two activities were kept as independent development projects. [[Rein Ise]] was the ATM project manager at MSFC. The ATM included eight major instruments for observations of the Sun at wavelengths from extreme [[ultraviolet]] to [[infrared]]. The data was mainly collected on special photographic film; during the Skylab missions, the film had to be changed out by astronauts in [[spacewalk]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ise|first1= Rein|first2= Eugene H.|last2= Cagle|title =The Apollo Telescope Mount on Skylab|journal =Acta Astronautica| volume= 1|number= 11–12 |date =November–December 1974|pages = 1315–1329|doi= 10.1016/0094-5765(74)90078-2|bibcode= 1974AcAau...1.1315I}}</ref>

On May 14, 1973, the 77-ton (70,000-kg) Skylab was launched into a 235-nautical-mile (435-km) orbit by the last flown Saturn V. Saturn IB vehicles with their CSMs were used to launch three-person crews to dock with Skylab. Severe damage was sustained during Skylab launch and deployment, resulting in the loss of the station's micrometeoroid shield/sun shade and one of its main solar panels. This loss was partially corrected by the first crew, launched May 25; they stayed in orbit with Skylab for 28 days. Two additional missions followed with the launch dates of July 28 and November 16, with mission durations of 59 and 84 days, respectively. Skylab, including the ATM, logged about 2,000 hours on some 300 scientific and medical experiments. The last Skylab crew returned to the Earth on February 8, 1974.<ref>Belew, Leland. F. (editor); [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-400/contents.htm "Skylab, Our First Space Station"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111222039/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-400/contents.htm |date=2020-11-11 }} NASA publication SP-400, 1977</ref>

=====Apollo–Soyuz Test Program=====
The [[Apollo–Soyuz Test Project]] (ASTP) was the last flight of a Saturn IB. On 15 July 1975, a three-person crew was launched on a six-day mission to dock with a Soviet [[Soyuz (spacecraft)|Soyuz]] spacecraft. The primary purpose was to provide engineering experience for future joint space flights, but both spacecraft also had scientific experiments. This was the last crewed U.S. space mission until April 1981.

====Post-Apollo science====
The [[HEAO Program|High Energy Astronomy Observatory]] (HEAO) Program involved three missions of large spacecraft in [[low Earth orbit]]. Each spacecraft was about {{cvt|18|ft|m}} in length, massed between {{cvt|6000|and|7000|lb|kg}}, and carried some {{cvt|3000|lb|kg}} of experiments for [[X-ray astronomy|X-ray]] and [[gamma-ray astronomy|gamma-ray]] astronomy and [[Cosmic ray|cosmic-ray]] investigations. The project provided insights into celestial objects by studying their high-energy radiation from space. Scientists from across the US served as [[principal investigator]]s.{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}

The HEAO spacecraft concept originated in the late 1960s, but funding did not become available for some time. Using [[Atlas-Centaur]] launch vehicles, three highly successful missions were flown: HEAO 1 in August 1977, HEAO 2 (also called the Einstein Observatory) in November 1978, and HEAO 3 in September 1979. Fred A. Speer was the HEAO project manager for MSFC.<ref>Tucker, Wallace H.; [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-466/sp466.htm "The Star Splitters: The High Energy Astronomy Observatories"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225231009/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-466/sp466.htm |date=2017-12-25 }} NASA, SP-466, 1984;</ref>

Other MSFC-managed space science projects in the 1970s included the [[LAGEOS|Laser Geodynamics Satellite]] (LAGEOS) and [[Gravity Probe A]]. In LAGEOS, laser beams from 35 ground stations are reflected by 422 prismatic mirrors on the satellite to track movements in the Earth's crust. The measurement accuracy is a few centimeters and it tracks the movement of [[tectonic plates]] with comparable accuracy. Conceived and built at MSFC, the LAGEOS was launched by a [[Delta (rocket family)|Delta]] rocket in May 1976.<ref>[https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experiment/display.action?id=1976-039A-01 "Laser Tracking Reflector"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803162713/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experiment/display.action?id=1976-039A-01 |date=2020-08-03 }}, NASA Tech Data</ref>

Gravity Probe A, also called the Redshift Experiment, used an extremely precise [[hydrogen maser]] clock to confirm part of Einstein's [[general relativity|general theory of relativity]]. The probe was launched in June 1976, by a [[Scout (rocket family)|Scout]] rocket, and remained in space for near two hours, as intended.<ref>Vessot, R.F.C. et al. (1980). "Test of Relativistic Gravitation with a Space-Borne Hydrogen Maser" ''. Rev. Ltrs.'', vol. 45, no 26 (1980), pp. 2081–2084</ref>

====Space Shuttle development====
[[File:Space Shuttle Pathfinder OV-098 original configuration.jpg|thumb|A crane hoists the [[Space Shuttle Pathfinder|Facilities Test Article]], a mockup of an actual shuttle orbiter, into the Saturn V Dynamic Test Stand at MSFC to test the procedures in preparation for the dynamic test of [[Space Shuttle Enterprise|Space Shuttle ''Enterprise'']].]]
On January 5, 1972, President [[Richard M. Nixon]] announced plans to develop the [[Space Shuttle]], a reusable Space Transportation System (STS) for routine access to space. The Shuttle was composed of the [[Space Shuttle orbiter|Orbiter Vehicle]] (OV) containing the crew and payload, two [[Solid Rocket Booster]]s (SRBs), and the [[Space Shuttle external tank|External Tank]] (ET) that carried liquid fuel for the OV's main engines. MSFC was responsible for the SRBs, the OV's three main engines, and the ET. MSFC was also responsible for the integration of [[Spacelab]], a versatile laboratory developed by the [[European Space Agency]] and carried in the Shuttle's cargo bay on some flights.{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Super Lightweight External Tank |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/pdf/113020main_shuttle_lightweight.pdf |access-date=2021-12-11 |archive-date=2022-01-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118065308/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/pdf/113020main_shuttle_lightweight.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The first test firing of an OV main engine was in 1975. Two years later, the first firing of a SRB took place and tests on the ET began at MSFC. The first ''Enterprise'' OV flight, attached to a [[Shuttle Carrier Aircraft]] (SCA), was in February 1977; this was followed by free landings in August and October. In March 1978, the ''Enterprise'' OV was flown atop a SCA to MSFC. Mated to an ET, the partial Space Shuttle was hoisted onto the modified [[Saturn V Dynamic Test Stand]] where it was subjected to a full range of vibrations comparable to those in a launch. The first spaceworthy Space Shuttle, ''[[Space Shuttle Columbia|Columbia]]'', was completed and placed at the KSC for checking and launch preparation. On April 12, 1981, the ''Columbia'' made the first orbital test flight.{{citation_needed|date=July 2019}}