Editing Marie Antoinette (section)

==Queen of France and Navarre (1774–1792)==
[[File:Hickel - Marie Antoinette.jpg|thumb|Marie Antoinette by Joseph Hickel c.1773]]

===Early years (1774–1778)===
On 10 May 1774, upon the death of Louis XV, the dauphin ascended the throne as King Louis XVI of [[Kingdom of France|France]] and [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]] with Marie Antoinette as his [[queen consort]]. At the outset, the new queen had limited political influence with her husband, who, with the support of his two most important ministers, Chief Minister [[Jean-Frédéric Phélypeaux, Count of Maurepas|Maurepas]] and Foreign Minister [[Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes|Vergennes]], blocked several of her candidates from assuming important positions, including Choiseul.{{sfnm|Fraser|2001|1pp=136–37|2a1=d'Arneth|2a2=Geffroy|2y=1874|2pp=475–480}} The queen did play a decisive role in the disgrace and exile of the most powerful of Louis XV's ministers, the [[Emmanuel-Armand de Richelieu, duc d'Aiguillon|Duc d'Aiguillon]].{{sfnm|Castelot|1962|1pp=107–108|Fraser|2001|2pp=124–27|Lever|1991|3p=125}}

On 24 May 1774, two weeks after the death of Louis XV, the king gave his wife the [[Petit Trianon]], a small château on the grounds of Versailles that had been built by Louis XV for Madame de Pompadour. Louis XVI allowed Marie Antoinette to renovate it to suit her own tastes; soon rumours circulated that she had plastered the walls with gold and diamonds.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cronin|1974|p=215}}</ref>

[[File:Marie-Antoinette; koningin der Fransen.jpg|thumb|Queen Marie Antoinette wearing court [[Robe de cour|grand habit]] by Jean-Baptiste André Gautier-Dagoty c.1775]]
The queen spent heavily on fashion, luxuries, and gambling, though the country was facing a grave financial crisis and the population was suffering. [[Rose Bertin]] created dresses for her, hairstyles such as ''[[pouf]]s'', up to three feet (90&nbsp;cm) high, and the ''[[panache]]—''a spray of feather plumes. She and her court also adopted the English fashion of dresses made of [[indienne]] (a material banned in France from 1686 until 1759 to protect local French woolen and silk industries), [[percale]] and [[muslin]].<ref>{{cite book|first1=Michael|last1=Batterberry|first2=Ariane|last2=Ruskin Batterberry|title=Fashion, the mirror of history|publisher=Greenwich House|location=Greenwich, Connecticut|date=1977|isbn=978-0-517-38881-5|page=190}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=150–51}}</ref> As a result of all these fashion activities, Marie Antoinette presided over one of the most important and fashionable courts in history, and she was dominant over all of the other ladies of the court; as for her bearing and appearance the queen was very majestic and charismatic despite gaining much weight over the years with her many pregnancies.

The [[Flour War]] of 1775—a series of riots caused by the high prices of flour and bread—damaged her reputation among the general public. Eventually, Marie Antoinette's reputation was no better than that of previous kings. Many French people were beginning to blame her for the degrading economic situation, suggesting the country's inability to pay off its debt was the result of her wasting the crown's money.<ref>{{harvnb|Erickson|1991|pp=163}}</ref> In her correspondence, Maria Theresa expressed concern over her daughter's spending habits, citing the civil unrest it was beginning to cause.<ref>Thomas, Chantal. ''The Wicked Queen: The Origins of the Myth of Marie Antoinette''. Translated by Julie Rose. New York: Zone Books, 2001, p. 51.</ref>

As early as 1774, Marie Antoinette had begun to befriend some of her male admirers, such as the [[Pierre Victor Besenval de Bronstatt|Baron de Besenval]], the [[François-Henri de Franquetot de Coigny|Duc de Coigny]], and [[Count Valentin Esterhazy|Count Valentin Esterházy]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=140–45}}</ref>{{sfn|d'Arneth|Geffroy|1874|pp=400–410}} and also formed deep friendships with various ladies at court. Most noted was [[Marie Thérèse Louise of Savoy, Princesse de Lamballe|Marie-Louise, Princesse de Lamballe]], related to the royal family through her marriage into the [[Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon, Duke of Penthièvre|Penthièvre family]]. On 19 September 1774, she appointed her superintendent of her household,<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=129–31}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=131–32}}; {{harvnb|Bonnet|1981}}</ref> an appointment she soon transferred to her new favourite, the [[Yolande de Polastron|Duchess of Polignac]]. In 1774, she took under her patronage her former music teacher, the German opera composer [[Christoph Willibald Gluck]], who remained in France until 1779.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=111–13}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Howard |first1=Patricia |title=Gluck: An Eighteenth-century Portrait in Letters and Documents |date=1995 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-816385-5 |pages=105–15, 240–45}}</ref>

===Motherhood, changes at court and intervention in politics (1778–1781)===
Amidst the atmosphere of a wave of ''[[libelles]]'', the Holy Roman Emperor [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]] came to France incognito, using the name Comte de Falkenstein, for a six-week visit during which he toured Paris extensively and was a guest at Versailles. He visited the king and queen (his sister) on 18 April 1777 at the [[Château de la Muette]] and spoke frankly to Louis, curious as to why the royal marriage had not been consummated, arriving at the conclusion that no obstacle to the couple's conjugal relations existed save the queen's lack of interest and the king's unwillingness to exert himself.<ref>Lever, Evelyne, ''Louis XVI'', Fayard, Paris, 1985, pp. 289–91</ref>

In a letter to his brother [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold, Grand Duke of Tuscany]], Joseph II described them as "a couple of complete blunderers."<ref>{{Harvnb|Cronin|1974|pp=158–59}}</ref> He disclosed to Leopold that the inexperienced Louis had confided in him the course of action he had been undertaking in their marital bed; saying Louis "introduces the member," but then "stays there without moving for about two minutes," withdraws without having completed the act and "bids goodnight."{{sfn|Fraser|2002b|p=156}} Suggestions that Louis suffered from [[phimosis]], which was relieved by [[circumcision]], have been discredited.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historyofcircumcision.net/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=80|title=Circumcision and phimosis in eighteenth century France|website=History of Circumcision|access-date=16 December 2016}}</ref> Nevertheless, following Joseph's intervention, the marriage was finally consummated in August 1777.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cronin|1974|p=159}}</ref> Eight months later, in April 1778, it was suspected that the queen was pregnant, which was officially announced on 16 May.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=160–61}}</ref> Marie Antoinette's daughter, [[Marie Thérèse of France|Marie-Thérèse Charlotte]], ''Madame Royale'', was born at Versailles on 19 December 1778.<ref name="Fraser 2001 166–170" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Cronin|1974|p=161}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hibbert|2002|p=23}}</ref> The child's paternity was contested in the ''libelles'', as were all her children's.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|p=169}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Fraser |first=Antonia |title=Marie Antoinette: The Journey |publisher=Phoenix |year=2006 |isbn=9780753821404 |pages=182–193}}</ref>

In the middle of the queen's pregnancy, two events occurred which had a profound effect on her later life: the return of her friend, the Swedish diplomat Count [[Axel von Fersen the Younger]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/12096119/Marie-Antoinettes-torrid-affair-with-Swedish-count-revealed-in-decoded-letters.html |title=Marie-Antoinette's torrid affair with Swedish count revealed in decoded letters |website=The Telegraph |last=Samuel |first=Henry |date=12 January 2016}}</ref> to Versailles for two years, and her brother's [[War of the Bavarian Succession|claim to the throne]] of [[Electorate of Bavaria|Bavaria]], contested by [[Saxony]] and Prussia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cronin|1974|pp=162–64}}</ref> Marie Antoinette pleaded with her husband for the French to intercede on behalf of Austria. The [[Peace of Teschen]], signed on 13 May 1779, ended the brief conflict, with the queen imposing French mediation at her mother's insistence and Austria gaining the [[Innviertel]] territory of at least 100,000 inhabitants—a strong retreat from the early French position which was hostile towards Austria. This gave the impression, partially justified, that the queen had sided with Austria against France.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=158–71}}</ref>{{sfn|d'Arneth|Geffroy|1874|pp=168–170, 180–182, 210–212}}

Meanwhile, the queen began to institute changes in court customs. Some of them met with the disapproval of the older generation, such as the abandonment of heavy makeup and the popular wide-hooped [[Pannier (clothing)|panniers]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Fashion: The Definitive History of Costume and Style |last=Kindersley |first=Dorling |publisher=DK Publishing |year=2012 |location=New York |pages=146–49}}</ref> The new fashion called for a simpler feminine look, typified first by the rustic [[Polonaise (clothing)|''robe à la polonaise'']] style and later by the ''[[1775-95 in Western fashion#Women's fashion|gaulle]]'', a layered muslin dress Marie Antoinette wore in a 1783 [[Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun|Vigée-Le Brun]] portrait.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cronin|1974|pp=127–28}}</ref> In 1780 she began to participate in amateur plays and musicals in the [[Théâtre de la Reine]] built for her by [[Richard Mique]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=174–79}}</ref>

[[File:MA-Lebrun.jpg|thumb|''[[Marie Antoinette with a Rose]]'', a 1783 portrait of Marie Antoinette that was criticised for showing what was described as improper and informal attire for a queen. In response to the criticism, it was repainted with the queen in a blue silk dress.<ref>[http://digitalcommons.providence.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1047&context=art_journal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318103947/http://digitalcommons.providence.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1047&context=art_journal|date=18 March 2015}} Kelly Hall: "Impropriety, Informality and Intimacy in Vigée Le Brun's Marie Antoinette en Chemise", pp. 21–28. Providence College Art Journal, 2014.</ref>]]
Repayment of the French debt remained a difficult problem, further exacerbated by Vergennes and also by Marie Antoinette prodding<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Larkin|first=T. Lawrence|date=2010|title=A "Gift" Strategically Solicited and Magnanimously Conferred|journal=Winterthur Portfolio|volume=44|issue=1|pages=31–76|doi=10.1086/651087|jstor=10.1086/651087|s2cid=142922208|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/651087 | issn = 0084-0416}}</ref> Louis to involve France in the [[American Revolutionary War]]. The primary motive for the queen's involvement in political affairs in this period may arguably have had more to do with court factionalism than any true interest on her part in politics,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Marie-Antoinette-queen-of-France|title=Marie-Antoinette {{!}} Biography & French Revolution|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=3 February 2018}}</ref> but she played an important role in aiding the [[American Revolution]] by securing Austrian and [[Russian Empire|Russian]] support for France, which resulted in the establishment of the [[First League of Armed Neutrality]] that stopped Britain's attack, and by weighing in decisively for the nomination of [[Philippe Henri, marquis de Ségur|Philippe Henri, Marquis de Ségur]], as Minister of War and [[Charles Eugène Gabriel de La Croix]] as Secretary of the Navy in 1780, who helped [[George Washington]] defeat the British in the American Revolutionary War, which ended in 1783.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=152, 171, 194–95}}</ref>

Marie Antoinette's second pregnancy ended in a miscarriage early in July 1779, as confirmed by letters between the queen and her mother, although some historians believed that she may have experienced bleeding related to an irregular menstrual cycle, which she mistook for a lost pregnancy.<ref>[http://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1965&context=theses Meagen Elizabeth Moreland: ''The Performance of Motherhood in the Correspondence of Madame de Sévigné, Marie-Thérèse of Austria and Joséphine Bonaparte to their Daughters''. Chapter I: Contextualizing the correspondence, p. 11] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202001555/http://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1965&context=theses|date=2 February 2017}} (retrieved 1 October 2016).</ref> Her third pregnancy was affirmed in March 1781, and on 22 October she gave birth to [[Louis Joseph, Dauphin of France|Louis Joseph Xavier François]], Dauphin of France.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ntv.co.jp/marie/works/catalog_en.pdf|title=From Vienna to Versailles: from Imperial Princess to Crown Prince}}</ref>

Empress Maria Theresa died on 29 November 1780 in Vienna. Marie Antoinette feared that the death of her mother would jeopardise the Franco-Austrian alliance, as well as ultimately herself, but Joseph II wrote to her that he had no intention of breaking the alliance.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JD1AAQAAMAAJ |title=Marie Antoinette; Joseph II, und Leopold II |last=Arneth |first=Alfred |date=1866 |location=Leipzig / Paris / Vienna |publisher=K.F. Köhler / Ed. Jung-Treuttel / Wilhelm Braumüller |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JD1AAQAAMAAJ/page/n37 23] (footnote) |language=fr, de}}</ref> A second visit from Joseph II, which took place in July 1781 to reaffirm the Franco-Austrian alliance and also to see his sister, was tainted by false rumours{{Sfn|Fraser|2002|p=186}} that Marie Antoinette was sending money to him from the French treasury.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=184–87}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Price|1995|pp=55–60}}</ref>

===Declining popularity (1782–1785)===
Despite the general celebration over the birth of an heir, Marie Antoinette's political influence was perceived to greatly benefit Austria.<ref>Fraser, pp. 232–36</ref> During the [[Kettle War]] in which Joseph II attempted to open the [[Scheldt]] river for naval passage, Marie Antoinette succeeded in obliging Vergennes to pay huge financial compensation to Austria. The queen was able to obtain her brother's support against [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] in the American Revolution, and she neutralized French hostility to his alliance with Russia.<ref>{{cite book |title=Lettres de Marie Antoinette |author=Le Marquis de Beaucourt |date=1895 |volume=ii |pages=42–44}}</ref>{{sfn|Lever|1991|pp=350–353}}

In 1782, after the governess of the royal children, the [[Victoire Armande Josèphe de Rohan|Princesse de Guéméné]], went bankrupt and resigned, Marie Antoinette appointed her favourite, the [[Yolande de Polastron|Duchess of Polignac]], to the position.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cronin|1974|p=193}}</ref> This decision met with disapproval from the court as the duchess was considered to be of too modest origins to occupy such an exalted position. In contrast, both the king and the queen trusted Madame de Polignac completely, gave her a 13-room apartment in Versailles and paid her well.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=198–201}}</ref> The entire [[Polignac family]] benefited greatly from royal favour in titles and positions, but its sudden wealth and lavish lifestyle outraged most aristocratic families, who resented the Polignacs' dominance at court and also fueled the increasing popular disapproval of Marie Antoinette, mostly in Paris.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Price |first1=Munro |title=The Road from Versailles: Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, and the Fall of the French Monarchy |date=2003 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0-312-26879-4 |pages=14–15, 72}}</ref> Mercy-Argenteau wrote to the empress: "It is almost unexampled that in so short a time, the royal favour should have brought such overwhelming advantages to a family".<ref>{{Harvnb|Zweig|2002|p=121}}</ref>

In June 1783, Marie Antoinette's pregnancy was announced, but on the night of 1–2 November, her 28th birthday, she suffered a miscarriage.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Wheeler |first1=Bonnie |title=Eleanor of Aquitaine: Lord and Lady |last2=Parsons |first2=John Carmi |year=2003 |pages=288}}</ref> In 1783 the queen played a decisive role in the nomination of [[Charles Alexandre de Calonne]], a close friend of the Polignacs, as [[Controller-General of Finances]], and of the [[Louis Auguste Le Tonnelier de Breteuil|Baron de Breteuil]] as the Minister of the Royal Household, making him perhaps the strongest and most conservative minister of the reign.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Charles-Alexandre de Calonne {{!}} French statesman |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Alexandre-de-Calonne|access-date=2021-12-16|website=Britannica |language=en}}</ref> The result of these two nominations was that Marie Antoinette's influence became paramount in government, and the new ministers rejected any major change to the structure of the old regime. More than that, the [[Ségur Ordinance|decree by de Ségur]], the minister of war, requiring four [[quarters of nobility]] as a condition for the appointment of officers, mainly served the interest of older noble families including poorer provincial ones, who were widely seen as a reactionary interest group by ambitious members of the middle and professional classes, by some more recent nobility, and even by the Parisian populace and press. The measure also blocked the access of 'commoners', mainly sons of members of the professional classes, and of more recently elevated nobility to important positions in the armed forces. As such, the decree became an important grievance for social classes that had been habitually supportive of the monarchy and established order, and which went on to supply the bulk of the early leadership of the French Revolution.<ref name="Fraser 2001 218–20">{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=218–20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Price |first1=Munro |title=Preserving the Monarchy: The Comte de Vergennes 1774-1787 |date=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-46566-3 |pages=30–35, 145–50}}</ref>

Count [[Axel von Fersen the Younger|Axel von Fersen]], after his return from America in June 1783, was accepted into the queen's private society. There were claims that the two were romantically involved,<ref>{{cite book |last=Farr |first=Evelyn |title=Marie-Antoinette and Count Fersen: The Untold Love Story |date=12 October 2013 |publisher=Peter Owen Publishers |isbn=978-0720610017 |edition=2nd Revised}}</ref> but since most of their correspondence has been lost, destroyed, or redacted, for many years there was no conclusive evidence.<ref name="Fraser202">{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|p=202}}</ref> Starting in 2016, scientists at the [[Centre for Research and Restoration of Museums of France]] uncovered some of the redacted text of the queen's letters to Fersen.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Joseph Bamat |date=12 January 2016 |title=Science sheds new light on Marie Antoinette 'love affair' |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20160112-marie-antoinette-love-letters-science-france |publisher=France24}}</ref> The revealed texts do not mention a physical relationship but do confirm a very strong emotional relationship.<ref>{{cite book |last=Farr |first=Evelyn |title=I Love You Madly: Marie-Antoinette and Count Fersen: The Secret Letters |date=1 July 2016 |publisher=Peter Owen Publishers |isbn=978-0720618778}}</ref>

Around this time, pamphlets describing farcical sexual deviance including the queen and her friends in the court were growing in popularity around the country. The ''Portefeuille d'un talon rouge'' was one of the earliest, including the queen and a variety of other nobles in a political statement decrying the immoral practices of the court. As time went on, these came to focus more on the queen. They described amorous encounters with a wide range of figures, from the Duchess of Polignac to Louis XV. As these attacks increased, they were connected with the public's dislike of her association with the rival nation of Austria. It was publicly suggested that her supposed behaviour was learned at the Austrian court, particularly lesbianism, which was known as the "German vice".<ref>Hunt, Lynn. "The Many Bodies of Marie Antoinette: Political Pornography and the Problem of the Feminine in the French Revolution". In ''The French Revolution: Recent Debates and New Controversies'' 2nd edition, ed. [[Gary Kates]]. New York and London: Routledge, 1998, pp. 201–18.</ref> 

In 1783, the queen was busy with the creation of her "[[Hameau de la Reine|hamlet]]", a rustic retreat built by her favoured architect [[Richard Mique]], according to the designs of the painter [[Hubert Robert]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lever|2006|p=158}}</ref> Its creation caused another uproar when its cost became widely known.<ref>Fraser, pp. 206–08</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gutwirth |first1=Madelyn |title=The Twilight of the Goddesses: Women and Representation in the French Revolutionary Era |date=1992 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=978-0-8135-1787-2 |pages=103, 178–85, 400–05}}</ref> However, the hamlet was not an eccentricity of Marie Antoinette's. It was en vogue at the time for nobles to have recreations of small villages on their properties. In fact, the design was copied from that of [[Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé]]. It was also significantly smaller and less intricate than many other nobles'.{{sfn|Fraser|2002b|p=207}} Around this time she accumulated a library of 5,000 books. Those on music, often dedicated to her, were the most read, though she also liked to read history.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|p=208}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bombelles |first1=Marc-Marie marquis de |title=Journal |volume=1: 1780-1784 |date=1977 |publisher=Droz |pages=258–65 |language=fr}}</ref> She sponsored the arts, in particular music. Marie Antoinette preferred to hold her musicales in the salon of her ''[[Petit appartement de la reine]]'' in the Palace of Versailles or in the Théâtre de la Reine. She limited the audience to her intimate circle and a few musicians, among them the [[Chevalier de Saint-Georges]]. "Admitted to perform music with the Queen,"{{sfn|Banat|2006|p=151-152}} Saint-Georges probably played his violin sonatas for two instruments, with Her Majesty playing the [[fortepiano]]. She also supported some scientific endeavours, encouraging and witnessing the first launch of a ''[[Montgolfier brothers|Montgolfière]]'' hot air balloon; this extraordinary feat which represented a turning point in human civilization was done by [[Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Cronin|1974|pp=204–05}}</ref>

On 27 April 1784, [[Pierre Beaumarchais]]'s play ''[[The Marriage of Figaro (play)|The Marriage of Figaro]]'' premiered in Paris. Initially banned by the king because of its negative portrayal of the nobility, the play was finally allowed to be publicly performed because of the queen's support and its overwhelming popularity at court, where secret readings of it had been given by Marie Antoinette. The play was a disaster for the image of the monarchy and aristocracy. It inspired [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart's]] ''[[The Marriage of Figaro]]'', which premiered in Vienna on 1 May 1786.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=214–15}}</ref>

[[File:Adolf Ulrik Wertmüller - Queen Marie Antoinette of France and two of her Children Walking in The Park of Trianon - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|A 1784 portrait of Marie Antoinette with her two eldest children, Marie-Thérèse Charlotte and the Dauphin Louis Joseph, in the garden of [[Petit Trianon]], by [[Adolf Ulrik Wertmüller]]]]
On 24 October 1784, putting the Baron de Breteuil in charge of its acquisition, Louis XVI bought the [[Château de Saint-Cloud]] from [[Louis Philippe I, Duke of Orléans]] in the name of his wife, which she wanted because of their expanding family. She wanted to be able to own her own property, one that was actually hers, to then have the authority to bequeath it to "whichever of my children I wish,"{{Sfn|Fraser|2002|p=217}} choosing the child she thought could use it rather than it going through patriarchal inheritance laws or whims. It was proposed that the cost could be covered by other sales, such as that of the ''château Trompette'' in Bordeaux.{{sfn|Fraser|2002b|p=217}} This was unpopular, particularly with those factions of the nobility who disliked the queen but also with a growing percentage of the population who disapproved of a queen of France independently owning a private residence. The purchase of Saint-Cloud thus damaged the public's image of the queen even further. The château's high price, almost 6 million [[Livre tournois|livres]], plus the substantial extra cost of redecorating, ensured that much less money was going towards repaying France's substantial debt.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=216–20}}</ref>{{sfn|Lever|1991|pp=358–360}}

On 27 March 1785, Marie Antoinette gave birth to a second son, [[Louis XVII|Louis Charles]], who bore the title of [[Duke of Normandy]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=224–25}}</ref> The fact that the birth occurred exactly nine months after Fersen's return did not escape the attention of many, leading to doubt as to the parentage of the child and to a noticeable decline of the queen's reputation in public opinion.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lever|2006|p=189}}</ref> The majority of Marie Antoinette's and Louis Charles' biographers believe that he was the biological son of Louis XVI, including [[Stefan Zweig]] and [[Antonia Fraser]], who believe that Fersen and Marie Antoinette were indeed romantically involved.<ref>Stefan Zweig, ''Marie Antoinette: The portrait of an average woman'', New York, 1933, pp. 143, 244–47</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=267–69}}</ref><ref>[[Ian Dunlop (author)|Ian Dunlop]], ''Marie-Antoinette: A Portrait'', London, 1993</ref><ref>Évelyne Lever, ''Marie-Antoinette : la dernière reine'', Fayard, Paris, 2000</ref><ref>Simone Bertière, ''Marie-Antoinette: l'insoumise'', Le Livre de Poche, Paris, 2003</ref><ref>Jonathan Beckman, ''How to ruin a Queen: Marie Antoinette, the Stolen Diamonds and the Scandal that shook the French throne'', London, 2014</ref><ref>Munro Price, ''The Fall of the French Monarchy: Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette and the baron de Breteuil'', London, 2002</ref><ref>Deborah Cadbury, ''The Lost King of France: The tragic story of Marie-Antoinette's Favourite Son'', London, 2003, pp. 22–24</ref> Fraser has noted that the birthdate matches up with a known conjugal visit from the king.{{Sfn|Fraser|2002|p=217}} Courtiers at Versailles noted in their diaries that the date of conception corresponded with a period when the king and queen had spent much time together, but these details were ignored amid attacks on the queen's character.<ref>Cadbury, p. 23</ref> These suspicions of illegitimacy further turned popular opinion sharply against the queen, and the image of a licentious, spendthrift, empty-headed foreign queen was quickly taking root in the French psyche.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|p=226}}</ref>

A second daughter, her last child, [[Sophie of France (1786-1787)|Marie Sophie Hélène Béatrix]], ''Madame Sophie'', was born on 9 July 1786 and lived only eleven months until 19 June 1787. She was named after the king's aunt, [[Sophie of France (1734–1782)|Princess Sophie of France]].{{Sfn|Fraser|2002|p=244}}

===Prelude to the Revolution: scandals and the failure of reforms (1786–1789)===
====Diamond necklace scandal====
[[File:Collier_reine_Breteuil.jpg|thumb|274x274px|A reconstruction of the diamond necklace in the [[Château de Breteuil]], in France]]
Marie Antoinette began to abandon her more carefree activities to become increasingly involved in politics in her role as queen of France.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=248–52}}</ref> By publicly showing her attention to the education and care of her children, the queen sought to improve the dissolute image she had acquired in 1785 from the "[[Affair of the Diamond Necklace|Diamond Necklace Affair]]", in which public opinion had falsely accused her of criminal participation in defrauding jewelers of the price of an expensive diamond necklace they had originally created for Madame du Barry.

The main actors in the scandal were [[Louis-René de Rohan|Cardinal de Rohan]], [[Henri Louis, Prince of Guéméné|Prince de Rohan-Guéméné]], and [[Jeanne de Valois-Saint-Rémy]], Countess de La Motte. Marie Antoinette had profoundly disliked Rohan since the time he had been the French ambassador to Vienna when she was a child. Despite his high clerical position at the Court, she never addressed a word to him. Others involved were [[Nicole Le Guay d'Oliva|Nicole Lequay]], alias ''Baronne d'Oliva'', a prostitute who happened to look like Marie Antoinette; [[Rétaux de Villette]], a forger; [[Alessandro Cagliostro]], an Italian adventurer; and the Count de La Motte, Jeanne de Valois' husband. Madame de La Motte tricked Rohan into buying the necklace as a gift to Marie Antoinette, for him to gain the queen's favour.

When the affair was discovered, those involved were arrested, tried, convicted, and either imprisoned or exiled—except Count de La Motte and Rétaux de Villette, who both managed to flee. Madame de La Motte was sentenced for life to confinement in the [[Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital]], which also served as a prison for women. Judged by the [[Parlement of Paris]], Rohan was found not guilty and allowed to leave the [[Bastille]]. Marie Antoinette, who had insisted on the arrest of the cardinal, was dealt a heavy personal blow, as was the monarchy, and despite the fact that the guilty parties were tried and convicted, the affair proved to be extremely damaging to her reputation, which never recovered from it.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

====Failure of political and financial reforms====
Suffering from an acute case of depression, the king began to seek the advice of his wife. In her new role and with increasing political power, the queen tried to improve the awkward situation brewing between the Parlement and the king.<ref name="Fraser248-250"/> This change of the queen's position signaled the end of the Polignacs' influence and their impact on the finances of the Crown.

Continuing deterioration of the financial situation despite cutbacks to the royal retinue and court expenses ultimately forced the king, the queen and the Controller-General of Finances [[Charles Alexandre de Calonne]]—at the urging of Vergennes—to call a session of the [[Assembly of Notables]] after a hiatus of 160 years. The Assembly was held for the purpose of initiating necessary financial reforms, but the Assembly refused to cooperate. The first meeting took place on 22 February 1787, nine days after the death of Vergennes on 13 February. Marie Antoinette did not attend the meeting, and her absence resulted in accusations that the queen was trying to undermine its purpose.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=246–48}}</ref>{{sfn|Lever|1991|pp=419–420}} The Assembly was a failure; it did not pass any reforms and instead fell into a pattern of defying the king. On the urging of the queen, Louis dismissed Calonne on 8 April.<ref name="Fraser248-250">{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=248–50}}</ref>

On 1 May [[Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne]], [[Archbishop of Toulouse]] and one of the queen's political allies, was appointed by the king at her urging to replace Calonne, first as controller-general of finances and then as [[Chief minister of France|chief minister]]. He began to institute more cutbacks at court while trying to restore the royal absolute power weakened by the Parlement.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=250–60}}</ref> Brienne was unable to improve the financial situation, and since he was the queen's ally, this failure adversely affected her political position. The continued poor financial climate of the country resulted in the 25 May dissolution of the Assembly of Notables because of its inability to function, and the lack of solutions was blamed on the queen.<ref name="Fraser 2001 218–20"/>

France's financial problems were the result of a combination of factors: several expensive wars; a large royal family whose expenditures were paid for by the state; and an unwillingness on the part of most members of the privileged classes, aristocracy, and clergy, to help defray the costs of the government out of their own pockets by relinquishing some of their financial privileges. As a result of the public perception that she had single-handedly ruined the national finances, Marie Antoinette was given the nickname of "Madame Déficit" in the summer of 1787.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=254–55}}</ref> While the sole fault for the financial crisis did not lie with her, Marie Antoinette was the biggest obstacle to any major reform effort. She had played a decisive role in the disgrace of the reformer ministers of finance, [[Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot]] (in 1776), and [[Jacques Necker]] (first dismissal in 1781). If the secret expenses of the queen were taken into account, court expenses were much higher than the official estimate of 7% of the state budget.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=254–60}}</ref>

[[File:Marie Antoinette and her Children by Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|This State Portrait of Marie Antoinette and her three surviving children, Marie Thérèse, Louis Charles (on her lap) and Louis Joseph holding up the drape of an empty bassinet signifying the recent death of Marie's fourth child Sophie was meant to improve her reputation by depicting her as a mother in simple, yet stately attire, by [[Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun]], 1787.]]

The queen attempted to fight back with propaganda portraying her as a caring mother, most notably in the painting by [[Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun]] exhibited at the [[Paris Salon|''Royal Académie Salon de Paris'']] in August 1787, showing her with her children.<ref>Facos, p. 12.</ref><ref>Schama, p. 221.</ref> Around the same time, Jeanne de Valois-Saint-Rémy escaped from prison and fled to London where she published damaging slander concerning her supposed amorous affair with the queen.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=255–58}}</ref>

The political situation in 1787 worsened when, at Marie Antoinette's urging, the ''[[Parlement of Paris]]'' was exiled to [[Troyes]] on 15 August. It further deteriorated when Louis tried to use a ''[[lit de justice]]'' on 11 November to impose legislation. The new [[Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans|Duke of Orléans]] publicly protested the king's actions and was subsequently exiled to his [[Château de Villers-Cotterêts]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=257–58}}</ref> The May Edicts issued on 8 May 1788 were also opposed by the public and parlement. On 8 August Louis announced his intention to bring back the [[Estates General (France)|Estates General]], the traditional elected legislature of the country, which had not been convened since 1614.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=258–59}}</ref>

While from late 1787 up to his death in June 1789, Marie Antoinette's primary concern was the continued deterioration of the health of Louis Joseph, who suffered from [[tuberculosis]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=260–61}}</ref> she was directly involved in the exile of the ''Parlement'', the May Edicts, and the announcement regarding the Estates General. She participated in the [[Conseil du Roi|King Council]], the first queen to do so in over 175 years (since [[Marie de' Medici]] had been named ''Chef du Conseil du Roi'', between 1614 and 1617), and she was making the major decisions behind the scene and in the Royal Council.

Marie Antoinette was instrumental in the reinstatement of Necker as finance minister on 26 August 1788, a popular move, even though she herself was worried that it would go against her if Necker proved unsuccessful in reforming the country's finances. She accepted Necker's proposition to double the representation of the Third Estate (''tiers état'') in an attempt to check the power of the aristocracy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=263–65}}</ref>{{sfn|Lever|2001|pp=448–453}}

On the eve of the opening of the Estates General the queen attended the mass celebrating its return. As soon as it opened on 5 May 1789, the fracture between the democratic [[Estates of the realm|Third Estate]] (consisting of bourgeois and radical aristocrats) and the conservative nobility of the Second Estate widened, and Marie Antoinette knew that her rival, the Duke of Orléans, who had given money and bread to the people during the winter, would be acclaimed by the crowd, much to her detriment.<ref>{{cite book |title=A diary of the French Revolution 1789–93 |last=Morris |first=Gouverneur |date=1939 |pages=66–67 |editor=Beatrix Cary Davenport |location=Boston |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015011239764&seq=9}}</ref>

The death of the Louis Joseph on 4 June, which deeply affected his parents, was virtually ignored by the French people<ref>Nicolardot, Louis, ''Journal de Louis Seize'', 1873, pp. 133–38</ref> who were instead preparing for the next meeting of the Estates General and hoping for a resolution to the bread crisis. As the Third Estate declared itself a [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]], and as people either spread or believed rumours that the queen wished to bathe in their blood, Marie Antoinette went into mourning for her eldest son.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=274–78}}</ref> Her role was decisive in urging the king to remain firm and not concede to popular demands for reforms. In addition, she showed her determination to use force to crush the forthcoming revolution.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fraser|2001|pp=279–82}}</ref>{{sfn|Lever|1991|pp=462–467}}