Editing Kra–Dai languages (section)

==Internal classification==
[[File:"tooth" in Kra-Dai languages.svg|thumb|300x300px|Example of the divergence among the Kra-Dai languages, using the word for "tooth".]]
Kra–Dai consists of at least five well-established branches, namely Kra, Kam–Sui, Tai, Be, and Hlai (Ostapirat 2005:109).

;[[Tai languages|Tai]]: southern China and Southeast Asia
;[[Kra languages|Kra]]: southern China, northern Vietnam; called ''Kadai'' in ''[[Ethnologue]]'' and ''Geyang'' (仡央) in Chinese
;[[Kam–Sui languages|Kam–Sui]]: [[Guizhou]] and [[Guangxi]], China
;[[Be languages|Be]]: [[Hainan]]; possibly also includes [[Jizhao language|Jizhao]] of [[Guangdong]]
;[[Hlai languages|Hlai]]: [[Hainan]]

Chinese linguists have also proposed a [[Kam–Tai languages|Kam–Tai]] group that includes [[Kam–Sui languages|Kam–Sui]], [[Tai languages|Tai]], and [[Be languages|Be]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Liang Min 梁敏 & Zhang Junru 张均如. 1996. ''Dongtai yuzu gailun'' 侗台语族概论 / ''An introduction to the Kam–Tai languages''. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press 中国社会科学出版社. {{ISBN|9787500416814}}</ref><ref>Ni Dabai 倪大白. 1990. ''Dongtai yu gailun'' 侗台语概论 / ''An introduction to the Kam–Tai languages''. Beijing: Central Nationalities Research Institute Press 中央民族学院出版社.</ref>

Kra–Dai languages that are not securely classified and may constitute independent Kra–Dai branches include the following:
* '''[[Lakkia language|Lakkia]]''' and '''[[Biao language|Biao]]''', which may or may not subgroup with each other, are difficult to classify due to aberrant vocabulary but are sometimes classified as [[sister group|sisters]] of [[Kam–Sui languages|Kam–Sui]] (Solnit 1988).<ref name="Solnit1988"/>
* '''[[Jiamao language|Jiamao]]''' of southern Hainan, China, is an aberrant Kra–Dai language traditionally classified as a [[Hlai languages|Hlai language]], although Jiamao contains many words of non-Hlai origin.
* '''[[Jizhao language|Jizhao]]''' of [[Guangdong]], China, is currently unclassified within Kra–Dai but appears to be most closely related to [[Be languages|Be]] (Ostapirat 1998).<ref name="Ostapirat1998">Ostapirat, W. (1998). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23756759 A Mainland Bê Language? / 大陆的Bê语言?]. ''Journal of Chinese Linguistics'', 26(2), 338–344</ref>

Kra–Dai languages of mixed origins are:
* ''[[Hezhang Buyi language|Hezhang Buyi]]'': [[Northern Tai languages|Northern Tai]] and [[Kra languages|Kra]]
* ''[[E language|E]]'': [[Northern Tai languages|Northern Tai]] and [[Pinghua]] Chinese
* ''[[Caolan language|Caolan]]'': [[Northern Tai languages|Northern Tai]] and [[Central Tai languages|Central Tai]]
* ''[[Jiamao language|Jiamao]]'': [[Hlai languages|Hlai]] and other unknown elements ([[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]]?)

===Edmondson and Solnit (1988)===
An early but influential classification, with the traditional Kam–Tai clade, was [[Jerold A. Edmondson|Edmondson]] and Solnit's classification from 1988:<ref name=edmondson1988>Edmondson, Jerold A. and David B. Solnit, editors. 1988. Comparative Kadai: Linguistic studies beyond Tai. Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington Publications in Linguistics, 86. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. vii, 374 p.</ref><ref name="Tai">Edmondson, Jerold A. and David B. Solnit, editors. 1997. Comparative Kadai: the Tai branch. Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington Publications in Linguistics, 124. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. vi, 382 p.</ref>

{{tree list}}
* '''Kra–Dai'''
** [[Kra languages|Kra]] (Geyang)
** [[Hlai languages|Hlai]]
** [[Kam–Tai languages|Kam–Tai]]
*** {{tree list/branching}}
**** [[Lakkia language|Lakkia]]–[[Biao language|Biao]]
**** [[Kam–Sui languages|Kam–Sui]]
*** {{tree list/branching}}
**** [[Be languages|Be]]
**** [[Tai languages|Tai]]
{{tree list/end}}
This classification is also used by Liang and Zhang (1996),<ref>Liang Min & Zhang Junru. 1996. ''An introduction to the Kam–Tai languages''. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press.</ref> Chamberlain (2016: 38),<ref>Chamberlain, James R. 2016. Kra–Dai and the proto-history of South China and Vietnam. ''Journal of the Siam Society'' 104. 27–77.</ref> and  ''Ethnologue'', though by 2009 Lakkia was made a third branch of Kam–Tai and Biao was moved into Kam–Sui.

===Ostapirat (2005); Norquest (2007)===
Weera Ostapirat (2005:128) suggests the possibility of Kra and Kam–Sui being grouped together as Northern Kra–Dai and Hlai with Tai as Southern Kra–Dai.<ref name=Ostapirat2005/> [[Peter K. Norquest|Norquest]] (2007) has further updated this classification to include [[Lakkia language|Lakkia]] and [[Be languages|Be]]. Norquest notes that Lakkia shares some similarities with Kam–Sui, while Be shares some similarities with Tai. Norquest (2007:15) notes that Be shares various similarities with [[Northern Tai languages]] in particular.<ref name="norquest">Norquest, Peter K. 2007. [http://gradworks.umi.com/32/84/3284367.html ''A Phonological Reconstruction of Proto-Hlai'']. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona.</ref> Following Ostapirat, Norquest adopts the name Kra–Dai for the family as a whole. The following tree of Kra–Dai is from Norquest (2007:16):

{{tree list}}
* '''Kra–Dai'''
** Northern
*** [[Kra languages|Kra]]
*** Northeastern&nbsp;
**** [[Lakkia language|Lakkia]]
**** [[Kam–Sui languages|Kam–Sui]]
** Southern
*** [[Hlai languages|Hlai]]
*** Be–Tai
**** [[Tai languages|Tai]]
**** [[Be languages|Be]]
{{tree list/end}}

Additionally, Norquest (2007) also proposes a reconstruction for Proto-Southern Kra–Dai.

===Norquest (2015, 2020)===
A classification of Kra–Dai by Norquest (2015, 2020) is provided as follows:<ref name="Norquest-Brill">{{cite book|last=Norquest|first=Peter|title=A Phonological Reconstruction of Proto-Hlai|publisher=Brill|date=29 September 2015|isbn=978-90-04-30052-1|doi=10.1163/9789004300521|hdl=10150/194203}}</ref><ref>Norquest, Peter. 2020. ''[http://hdl.handle.net/2429/74055 A Hypothesis on the Origin of Preglottalized Sonorants in Kra–Dai]''. 38th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics. Vancouver: Department of Linguistics, University of British Columbia. {{doi|10.14288/1.0389866}}</ref>

{{tree list}}
* '''Kra–Dai'''
** [[Kra languages|Kra]]
** Eastern Kra–Dai
*** [[Biao language|Biao]]
*** Lakkja–Kam–Tai
**** [[Lakkia language|Lakkja]]
**** [[Kam–Tai languages|Kam–Tai]]&nbsp;
***** [[Kam–Sui languages|Kam–Sui]]
***** Western Kam–Tai&nbsp;
****** [[Hlai languages|Hlai]]
****** Be–Tai
******* [[Be languages|Ong-Be]]
******* [[Tai languages|Tai]]
{{tree list/end}}

===Norquest (2021)===
Based on shared lexical innovations, Norquest (2021) significantly revised his classification of Kra–Dai. Together, [[Biao language|Biao]] and [[Lakkia language|Lakkja]] form the most divergent subgroup of Kra–Dai. Be–Tai and Hlai are placed together as part of a "Hlai–Tai" group.<ref name="WOL-MSEA-13">{{cite book|last=Norquest|first=Peter|title=The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia|chapter=Classification of (Tai–)Kadai/Kra–Dai languages|publisher=De Gruyter|date=2021|doi=10.1515/9783110558142-013|pages=225–246|isbn=9783110558142 |s2cid=238672319 }}</ref>

{{tree list}}
* '''Kra–Dai'''
** [[Biao language|Biao]]–[[Lakkia language|Lakkja]]
** [[Kam–Tai languages|Kam–Tai]]
*** [[Kam–Sui languages|Kam–Sui]]
*** Kra–Tai
**** [[Kra languages|Kra]]
**** Hlai–Tai
***** [[Hlai languages|Hlai]]
***** Be–Tai
****** [[Be languages|Be]]
****** [[Tai languages|Tai]]
{{tree list/end}}