Editing James Monroe (section)

==Early political career==

=== Member of Continental Congress ===
Monroe resumed studying law under Jefferson and continued until 1783.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holmes |first=David R. |title=The Faiths of the Founding Fathers |publisher=Oxford Univ. Press |year=2006 |location=Oxford |page=104}}</ref><ref name="log-cabin-76">{{cite book |author=Pessen, Edward |url=https://archive.org/details/logcabinmythsoci0000pess/page/79 |title=The Log Cabin Myth: The Social Backgrounds of the Presidents |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-300-03166-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/logcabinmythsoci0000pess/page/79 79] |author-link=Edward Pessen |url-access=registration}}</ref> He was not particularly interested in legal theory or practice, but chose to take it up because he thought it offered "the most immediate rewards" and could ease his path to wealth, social standing, and political influence.<ref name="log-cabin-76" /> In 1782, Monroe was elected to the [[Virginia House of Delegates]]. After serving on Virginia's Executive Council,{{sfn|Hart|2005|pp=12–13}} he was elected to the Fourth [[Congress of the Confederation]] in November 1783 and served in Annapolis until Congress convened in Trenton, New Jersey in June 1784. He had served a total of three years when he finally retired from that office by the rule of rotation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Morgan|first=George|title=The Life of James Monroe|url=https://archive.org/details/lifejamesmonroe01morggoog|publisher=Small, Maynard, and Co.|year=1921|page=[https://archive.org/details/lifejamesmonroe01morggoog/page/n90 94]|isbn=9780404005948}}</ref> By that time, the government was meeting in the temporary capital of [[New York City]]. In 1784, Monroe undertook an extensive trip through Western New York and Pennsylvania to inspect the conditions in the Northwest. The tour convinced him that the United States had to pressure Britain to abandon its posts in the region and assert control of the Northwest.<ref>{{harvnb|Ammon|1971|pp=45–47}}</ref> While serving in Congress, Monroe became an advocate for western expansion, and played a key role in the writing and passage of the [[Northwest Ordinance]]. The ordinance created the [[Northwest Territory]], providing for federal administration of the territories west of Pennsylvania and north of the [[Ohio River]]. Another of Monroe's goals in the Confederate Congress was to negotiate American rights to free navigation on the [[Mississippi River]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hart|2005|pp=12–14}}</ref> During this period, Jefferson continued to serve as a mentor to Monroe, and, at Jefferson's prompting, he befriended another prominent Virginian, [[James Madison]].{{sfn|Hart|2005|pp=13–16}}

=== Marriage and law practice ===
On February 16, 1786, Monroe married [[Elizabeth Monroe|Elizabeth Kortright]] (1768–1830), who came from New York City's high society, at [[Trinity Church (Manhattan)|Trinity Church]] in Manhattan.<ref>{{cite web |title=First Lady Biography: Elizabeth Monroe |url=http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=5 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120509090316/http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=5 |archive-date=May 9, 2012 |access-date=September 23, 2012}}</ref> The marriage produced three children, [[Eliza Monroe Hay|Eliza]] in 1786,<ref name=":10" /> James in 1799<ref name=":3" /> and [[Maria Hester Monroe Gouverneur|Maria]] in 1802.<ref>{{Harvnb|Unger|2009|pp=147–149}}</ref> Although Monroe was raised in the Anglican faith, the children were educated according to the teachings of the [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopal Church]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Holmes |first=David L. |date=2003 |title=The Religion of James Monroe |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26440827 |journal=The Virginia Quarterly Review |volume=79 |issue=4 |pages=589–606 |jstor=26440827 |issn=0042-675X}}</ref> After a brief honeymoon on [[Long Island, New York]], the Monroes returned to New York City to live with her father until Congress adjourned:<ref>{{harvnb|Unger|2009|pp=63–64, 84}}</ref>

In the fall of 1786, Monroe resigned from Congress and moved to his uncle Jones' house in [[Fredericksburg, Virginia]], where he successfully passed the bar exam and became an attorney for the state.<ref name="Bell_1992">{{cite book |last=Bell |first=William Gardner |url=https://history.army.mil/books/sw-sa/SWSA-Fm.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071214152450/http://www.history.army.mil/books/Sw-SA/SWSA-Fm.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 14, 2007 |title=Secretaries of War and Secretaries of the Army: Portraits and Biographical Sketches |date=1992 |publisher=Center of Military History, United States Army |isbn=9780000033031 |location=Washington, DC |page=34}}</ref> In 1787, Monroe won election to another term in the Virginia House of Delegates. Though he had become outspoken in his desire to reform the Articles, he was unable to attend the [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Philadelphia Convention]] due to his work obligations.<ref>{{harvnb|Unger|2009|pp=74–75}}</ref> In 1788, Monroe became a delegate to the [[Virginia Ratifying Convention]], which voted on the adoption of the United States Constitution.<ref name=":10">{{Harvnb|Hart|2005|pp=17–18}}</ref> In Virginia, the struggle over the ratification of the proposed Constitution involved more than a simple clash between federalists and [[anti-federalists]]. Virginians held a full spectrum of opinions about the merits of the proposed change in national government, and those who held the middle ground in the ideological struggle became the central figures. Led by Monroe and [[Edmund Pendleton]], these "federalists who are for amendments" criticized the absence of a [[bill of rights]] and worried about surrendering taxation powers to the central government.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kukla |first=Jon |year=1988 |title=A Spectrum of Sentiments: Virginia's Federalists, Antifederalists, and 'Federalists Who Are for Amendments |journal=Virginia Magazine of Reality History and Biography |volume=96 |issue=3 |pages=276–296}}</ref> Monroe called for the Constitution to include guarantees regarding free navigation on the Mississippi River and to give the federal government direct control over the militia in case of defense. In doing so, he wanted to prevent the creation of a standing army, which proved to be a critical point of contention between the federalists and the anti-federalists. Monroe also opposed the [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]], which he viewed as too corruptible and susceptible to state interests, and favored direct election of the president.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ammon|1971|pp=72–73}}</ref> After Madison reversed his decision and promised to pass a bill of rights, the Virginia Convention ratified the Constitution by a narrow vote, though Monroe himself voted against it.<ref>{{harvnb|Unger|2009|pp=81–82}}</ref>

===Senator===

In the 1789 election to the [[1st United States Congress]], anti-federalist Henry Monroe persuaded Monroe to run against Madison, and he had the Virginia legislature [[gerrymandering in the United States|draw]] a [[congressional district]] designed to elect Monroe. During the campaign, Madison and Monroe often traveled together, and the election did nothing to diminish their friendship. In [[1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election|the election for Virginia's Fifth District]], Madison prevailed over Monroe, taking 1,308 votes compared to Monroe's 972 votes. After this defeat, Monroe moved his family from Fredericksburg to [[Albemarle County, Virginia|Albemarle County]], first to [[Charlottesville, Virginia|Charlottesville]] and later to the immediate neighborhood of [[Monticello]], where he bought an estate and named it [[Highland (James Monroe house)|Highland]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gawalt |first=Gerard W. |date=1993 |title=James Monroe, Presidential Planter |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4249353 |journal=The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=251–272 |jstor=4249353 |issn=0042-6636}}</ref> After the death of [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[William Grayson]] in 1790, Virginia legislators elected Monroe to serve the remainder of Grayson's term.<ref>{{harvnb|Unger|2009|pp=82–86}}</ref> Since the Senate, unlike the House of Representatives, met behind closed doors, the public paid little attention to it and focused on the House of Representatives. Monroe therefore requested in February 1791 that Senate sessions be held in public, but this was initially rejected and not implemented until February 1794.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ammon|1971|pp=83–84}}</ref>

During the [[presidency of George Washington]], U.S. politics became increasingly polarized between the [[Anti-Administration party|Anti-Administration Party]], led by Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and the [[Federalist Party|Federalists]], led by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. Monroe stood firmly with Jefferson in opposing Hamilton's strong central government and strong executive; Monroe was one of only 5 southern senators to vote against Hamilton's [[First Bank of the United States|national bank proposal]].<ref>{{Harvard citation|Ammon|1971|p=83}}</ref> The [[Democratic-Republican Party]] coalesced around Jefferson and Madison, and Monroe became one of the fledgling party's leaders in the Senate. He also helped organize opposition to [[John Adams]] in the [[1792 United States presidential election|1792]] election, though Adams defeated [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]] to win re-election as vice president.{{sfn|Cunningham|1996|pp=3–5}} When Monroe took part in congressional investigations into Hamilton's illegal transactions with [[Hamilton–Reynolds affair|James Reynolds]] in November 1792, this led to the uncovering of the first political sex scandal in the United States: The payments had been hush money to keep Hamilton's affair with Reynolds' wife secret. Hamilton never forgave Monroe for this public humiliation, which almost led to a duel between the two.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stello |first=Heidi |date=September 3, 2015 |title=The Near-Duel Between James Monroe and Alexander Hamilton |url=https://academics.umw.edu/jamesmonroepapers/2015/09/03/the-near-duel-between-james-monroe-and-alexander-hamilton/ |access-date=January 28, 2024 |website=Academics {{!}} Papers of James Monroe |language=en-US}}</ref> Throughout 1792 and 1793, Monroe and Madison responded to Hamilton's pamphlets accusing Jefferson of undermining Washington's authority with a series of six essays. These sharply worded replies were largely penned by Monroe. As leader of the Republicans in the Senate, Monroe soon became involved in matters of foreign relations. In 1794, he emerged as an opponent of Hamilton's appointment as ambassador to the United Kingdom and a supporter of the [[French First Republic|First French Republic]]. Since 1791 he had taken sides with the French Revolution in several essays under the pseudonym Aratus.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hart|2005|pp=21–22}}</ref>

===Minister to France===
[[File:James Monroe (1758-1831).jpg|thumb|right|upright|The earliest preserved portrait of James Monroe as Minister Plenipotentiary to France in 1794]]

As the 1790s progressed, the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] came to dominate U.S. foreign policy, with the British and French navies both interfering with U.S. trade with Europe. Like most other Jeffersonians, Monroe supported the [[French Revolution]], but Hamilton's followers tended to sympathize more with Britain. In 1794, hoping to find a way to avoid war with both countries, Washington appointed Monroe as his [[United States Ambassador to France|minister (ambassador) to France]], after Madison and [[Robert R. Livingston]] had declined the offer.<ref name=":4">{{Harvnb|Hart|2005|pp=26–30}}</ref> At the same time, he appointed the Anglophile Federalist [[John Jay]] as his [[United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom|minister to Britain]].<ref>{{harvnb|Unger|2009|pp=94–104}}</ref> Monroe took this position at a difficult time: America's negotiating position was made considerably more difficult by its lack of military strength. In addition, the conflict between Paris and London in America intensified the confrontation between the Anglophile Federalists and the Francophile Republicans. While the Federalists were basically only aiming for independence from Great Britain, the Republicans wanted a revolutionary new form of government, which is why they strongly sympathized with the First French Republic.<ref name=":4" />

After arriving in France, Monroe addressed the [[National Convention]], receiving a standing ovation for his speech celebrating [[republicanism]]. Monroe's passionate and friendly message of greeting at the inaugural ceremony before the National Convention was later criticized by Jay for its sentimentality, and Washington viewed the speech as "not well devised" in terms of venue and in light of American neutrality in the First Coalition War.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hart|2005|p=31}}</ref> Monroe experienced several early diplomatic successes, including the protection of U.S. trade from French attacks. In February 1795, Monroe used his influence to secure the release of all American citizens imprisoned since the French Revolution and [[Adrienne de La Fayette]], the wife of the Marquis de Lafayette. He had already secured the release of [[Thomas Paine]] in July 1794 and took him in, but when Paine worked on a diatribe against Washington despite Monroe's objections, they parted ways in the spring of 1796.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ammon|1971|pp=135–137}}</ref>

Months after Monroe arrived in France, the U.S. and Great Britain concluded the [[Jay Treaty]], outraging both the French and Monroe—not fully informed about the treaty prior to its publication. Despite the undesirable effects of the Jay Treaty on Franco-American relations, Monroe won French support for U.S. navigational rights on the [[Mississippi River]]—the mouth of which was controlled by [[Spain]]—and in 1795 the U.S. and Spain signed [[Pinckney's Treaty]]. The treaty granted the U.S. limited rights to use the port of [[New Orleans]].{{sfn|Hart|2005|pp=29–34}}

Immediately after [[Timothy Pickering]] succeeded Secretary of State [[Edmund Randolph]], who had been the only Francophile member of Washington's cabinet, in December 1795, he worked to dismiss Monroe. In 1796, Monroe sent a dispatch summarizing his response to French complaints of the Jay Treaty, but it was incomplete and did not include the French note or Monroe's written response. Pickering saw this as a sign of Monroe's unsuitability and, together with Hamilton, persuaded Washington to replace Monroe as ambassador.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ammon|1971|pp=151–153}}</ref> Washington decided Monroe was inefficient, disruptive, and failed to safeguard the national interest. He recalled Monroe in November 1796, the letter of dismissal being deliberately delayed in order to prevent his return before the presidential election.<ref>Herbert E. Klingelhofer, "George Washington Discharges Monroe for Incompetence." ''Manuscripts'' (1965) 17#1 pp 26–34.</ref> Returning to his home in Charlottesville, he resumed his dual careers as a farmer and lawyer.<ref>{{harvnb|Unger|2009|pp=136–137}}</ref> Jefferson and Madison urged Monroe to run for Congress, but Monroe chose to focus on state politics instead.{{sfn|Cunningham|1996|pp=6–7}}

In 1797, Monroe published ''A View of the Conduct of the Executive, in the Foreign Affairs of the United States: Connected with the Mission to the French Republic, During the Years 1794, 5, and 6,'' which sharply attacked Washington's government and accused it of acting against America's interests. He followed the advice of his friend Robert Livingston who cautioned him to "repress every harsh and acrimonious" comment about Washington. However, he did complain that too often the U.S. government had been too close to Britain, especially regarding the Jay Treaty.{{sfn|Ammon|1971|pp=165–167}} Washington made notes on this copy, writing, "The truth is, Mr. Monroe was cajoled, flattered, and made to believe strange things. In return he did, or was disposed to do, whatever was pleasing to that nation, reluctantly urging the rights of his own."<ref>Daniel C. Gilman, ''James Monroe'' (1883) p 70.</ref>