Editing Jacques-Louis David (section)

==The French Revolution==
In the beginning, David was a supporter of the Revolution, a friend of [[Maximilien Robespierre]], and a member of the [[Jacobin Club]]. While others were leaving the country for new and greater opportunities, David stayed behind to help destroy the old order; he was a regicide who voted in the National Convention for the [[execution of Louis XVI|execution]] of [[Louis XVI]]. It is uncertain why he did this,{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} as there were many more opportunities for him under the King than the new order; some people suggest David's love for the classical made him embrace everything about that period, including a republican government.
 
Others believed that they found the key to the artist's revolutionary career in his personality. Undoubtedly, David's artistic sensibility, mercurial temperament, volatile emotions, ardent enthusiasm, and fierce independence might have been expected to help turn him against the established order but they did not fully explain his devotion to the republican regime. Nor did the vague statements of those who insisted upon his "powerful ambition...and unusual energy of will" actually account for his revolutionary connections. Those who knew him maintained that "generous ardor", high-minded idealism and well-meaning though sometimes fanatical enthusiasm, rather than opportunism and jealousy, motivated his activities during this period.

Soon, David turned his critical sights on the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. This attack was probably caused primarily by the hypocrisy of the organization and their personal opposition to his work, as seen in previous episodes in David's life. The Royal Academy was controlled by royalists, who opposed David's attempts at reform; so the National Assembly finally ordered it to make changes to conform to the new constitution.

David then began work on something that would later hound him: propaganda for the new republic. David's painting of Brutus was shown during the play ''[[Brutus (tragedy)|Brutus]]'' by [[Voltaire]].

In 1789, David attempted to leave his artistic mark on the historical beginnings of the French Revolution with his painting of ''[[Tennis Court Oath|The Oath of the Tennis Court]]''. He undertook this task not out of personal political conviction but rather because he was commissioned to do so. The painting was meant to commemorate the event of the same name but was never completed. A meeting of the Estates General was convened in May to address reforms of the monarchy. Dissent arose over whether the three estates would meet separately, as had been tradition, or as one body. The King's acquiescence in the demands of the upper orders led to the deputies of the Third Estate renaming themselves as the [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]] on 17 June. They were locked out of the meeting hall three days later when they attempted to meet, and forced to reconvene to the royal indoor tennis court. Presided over by [[Jean-Sylvain Bailly]], they made a 'solemn oath never to separate' until a national constitution had been created. In 1789 this event was seen as a symbol of the national unity against the ''[[Ancien Régime|ancien regime]]''. Rejecting the current conditions, the oath signified a new transition in human history and ideology.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Warren|title=Jaques-Louis David and Jean-Louis Prieur revolutionary artists : the public, the populace, and images of the French revolution|date=2000|publisher=State university of New York press|location=New York|isbn=0791442888|pages=229}}</ref> David was enlisted by the Society of Friends of the Constitution, the body that would eventually form the Jacobins, to enshrine this symbolic event.<ref name="Crow 2007">{{Harvnb|Crow|2007}}.</ref>

This instance is notable in more ways than one because it eventually led David to finally become involved in politics as he joined the Jacobins. The picture was meant to be massive in scale; the figures in the foreground were to be life-sized portraits of the counterparts, including [[Jean-Sylvain Bailly]], the President of the Constituent Assembly. Seeking additional funding, David turned to the Society of Friends of the Constitution. The funding for the project was to come from over three thousand subscribers hoping to receive a print of the image. However, when the funding was insufficient, the state ended up financing the project.<ref name="Oxford">Lee, Simon. "David, Jacques-Louis." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. 14 November 2014.<http://www.oxfordartonline.com/subscriber/article/grove/art/T021541>.</ref>

David set out in 1790 to transform the contemporary event into a major historical picture which would appear at the Salon of 1791 as a large pen-and-ink drawing. As in the ''Oath of the Horatii'', David represents the unity of men in the service of a patriotic ideal. The outstretched arms which are prominent in both works betray David's deeply held belief that acts of republican virtue akin to those of the Romans were being played out in France. In what was essentially an act of intellect and reason, David creates an air of drama in this work. The very power of the people appears to be "blowing" through the scene with the stormy weather, in a sense alluding to the storm that would be the revolution.

Symbolism in this work of art closely represents the revolutionary events taking place at the time. The figure in the middle is raising his right arm making the oath that they will never disband until they have reached their goal of creating a "constitution of the realm fixed upon solid foundations".<ref>{{Harvnb|Bordes|2005|p=??}}.</ref> The importance of this symbol is highlighted by the fact that the crowd's arms are angled to his hand forming a triangular shape. Additionally, the open space in the top half contrasted to the commotion in the lower half serves to emphasize the magnitude of the [[Tennis Court Oath]].
[[File:Le Serment du Jeu de paume.jpg|thumb|left|Drawing by Jacques-Louis David of the Tennis Court Oath. David later became a deputy in the [[National Convention]] in 1792.]]
In his attempt to depict political events of the Revolution in "real time", David was venturing down a new and untrodden path in the art world. However, [[Thomas E. Crow|Thomas Crow]] argues that this path "proved to be less a way forward than a cul-de-sac for history painting".<ref name="Crow 2007"/> Essentially, the history of the demise of David's ''The Tennis Court Oath'' illustrates the difficulty of creating works of art that portray current and controversial political occurrences. Political circumstances in France proved too volatile to allow the completion of the painting. The unity that was to be symbolized in ''The Tennis Court Oath'' no longer existed in radicalized 1792. The National Assembly had split between conservatives and radical Jacobins, both vying for political power. By 1792 there was no longer consensus that all the revolutionaries at the tennis court were "heroes". A sizeable number of the heroes of 1789 had become the villains of 1792. In this unstable political climate David's work remained unfinished. With only a few nude figures sketched onto the massive canvas, David abandoned ''The Oath of the Tennis Court''. To have completed it would have been politically unsound. After this incident, when David attempted to make a political statement in his paintings, he returned to the less politically charged use of metaphor to convey his message.

When Voltaire died in 1778, the church denied him a church burial, and his body was interred near a monastery. A year later, Voltaire's old friends began a campaign to have his body buried in the [[Panthéon, Paris|Panthéon]], as church property had been confiscated by the French Government. In 1791, David was appointed to head the organizing committee for the ceremony, a parade through the streets of Paris to the Panthéon. Despite rain and opposition from conservatives due to the amount of money spent, the procession went ahead. Up to 100,000 people watched the "Father of the Revolution" being carried to his resting place. This was the first of many large festivals organized by David for the republic. He went on to organize festivals for martyrs that died fighting royalists. These funerals echoed the religious festivals of the pagan Greeks and Romans and are seen by many as Saturnalian.

[[File:Le représentant du peuple François en fonction2.jpg|right|thumb|Republican costume designed by David. Engraving by [[Dominique Vivant|Denon]]]]David incorporated many revolutionary symbols into these theatrical performances and orchestrated ceremonial rituals, in effect radicalizing the applied arts themselves. The most popular symbol for which David was responsible as propaganda minister was drawn from classical Greek images; changing and transforming them with contemporary politics. In an elaborate festival held on the anniversary of the revolt that brought the monarchy to its knees, David's Hercules figure was revealed in a procession following the [[Liberty (personification)|Goddess of Liberty]] ([[Marianne]]). Liberty, the symbol of Enlightenment ideals was here being overturned by the Hercules symbol; that of strength and passion for the protection of the Republic against disunity and factionalism.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hunt|2004|p=97}}.</ref> In his speech during the procession, David "explicitly emphasized the opposition between people and monarchy; Hercules was chosen, after all, to make this opposition more evident".<ref>{{Harvnb|Hunt|2004|p=99}}.</ref> The ideals that David linked to his Hercules single-handedly transformed the figure from a sign of the old regime into a powerful new symbol of revolution. "David turned him into the representation of a collective, popular power. He took one of the favorite signs of monarchy and reproduced, elevated, and monumentalized it into the sign of its opposite."<ref>{{Harvnb|Hunt|2004|p=103}}.</ref> Hercules, the image, became to the revolutionaries, something to rally around.

In June 1791, the King made an [[flight to Varennes|ill-fated attempt to flee the country]], but was apprehended short of his goal on the Austrian Netherlands border and was forced to return under guard to Paris. Louis XVI had made secret requests to [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Leopold II of Austria]], Marie-Antoinette's brother, to restore him to his throne. This was granted and Austria threatened France if the royal couple were hurt. In reaction, the people arrested the King. This led to an Invasion after the trials and execution of Louis and Marie-Antoinette. The Bourbon monarchy was destroyed by the French people in 1792—it would be restored after Napoleon, then destroyed again with the Restoration of the House of Bonaparte. When the new National Convention held its first meeting, David was sitting with his friends [[Jean-Paul Marat]] and Robespierre. In the convention, David soon earned the nickname "ferocious terrorist". Robespierre's agents discovered a secret vault containing the King's correspondence which proved he was trying to overthrow the government, and demanded his execution. The National Convention held the trial of Louis XVI; David voted for the death of the King, causing his wife, Marguerite Charlotte, a royalist, to divorce him.{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}}

When Louis XVI was executed on 21 January 1793, another man had already died as well—[[Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau]]. Le Peletier was killed on the preceding day by a royal bodyguard in revenge for having voted for the death of the King. David was called upon to organize a funeral, and he painted ''Le Peletier Assassinated''. In it, the assassin's sword was seen hanging by a single strand of horsehair above Le Peletier's body, a concept inspired by the proverbial ancient tale of the sword of Damocles, which illustrated the insecurity of power and position. The sword pierces a piece of paper on which is written "I vote the death of the tyrant", and as a tribute at the bottom right of the picture David placed the inscription "David to Le Peletier. 20 January 1793". The painting was later destroyed by Le Peletier's royalist daughter, and is known by only a drawing, an engraving, and contemporary accounts. Nevertheless, this work was important in David's career because it was the first completed painting of the French Revolution, made in less than three months, and a work through which he initiated the regeneration process that would continue with ''[[The Death of Marat]]'', David's masterpiece.

[[File:Jacques-Louis David - Marat assassinated - Google Art Project 2.jpg|left|thumb|'' [[The Death of Marat]]'' (1793)]]

On 13 July 1793, David's friend Marat was assassinated by [[Charlotte Corday]] with a knife she had hidden in her clothing. She gained entrance to Marat's house on the pretense of presenting him a list of people who should be executed as enemies of France. Marat thanked her and said that they would be guillotined next week upon which Corday immediately fatally stabbed him. She was guillotined shortly thereafter. Corday was of an opposing political party, whose name can be seen in the note Marat holds in David's subsequent painting, ''[[The Death of Marat]]''. Marat, a member of the National Convention and a journalist, had a skin disease that caused him to itch horribly. The only relief he could get was in his bath over which he improvised a desk to write his list of suspect counter-revolutionaries who were to be quickly tried and, if convicted, guillotined. David once again organized a spectacular funeral, and Marat was buried in the Panthéon. Marat's body was to be placed upon a Roman bed, his wound displayed and his right arm extended holding the pen which he had used to defend the Republic and its people. This concept was to be complicated by the fact that the corpse had begun to putrefy. Marat's body had to be periodically sprinkled with water and vinegar as the public crowded to see his corpse prior to the funeral on 15 and 16 July. The stench became so bad however that the funeral had to be brought forward to the evening of 16 July.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schama|1989|p=83}}.</ref>

''The Death of Marat'', perhaps David's most famous painting, has been called the [[Pietà]] of the revolution. Upon presenting the painting to the convention, he said "Citizens, the people were again calling for their friend; their desolate voice was heard: David, take up your brushes..., avenge Marat... I heard the voice of the people. I obeyed."

''The Death of Marat'', 1793, became the leading image of the Terror and immortalized both Marat and David in the world of the revolution. This piece stands today as "a moving testimony to what can be achieved when an artist's political convictions are directly manifested in his work".<ref>{{Harvnb|Boime|1987|p=454}}.</ref> A political martyr was instantly created as David portrayed Marat with all the marks of the real murder, in a fashion which greatly resembles that of Christ or his disciples.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rosenblum|1969|p=83}}.</ref> The subject although realistically depicted remains lifeless in a rather supernatural composition. With the surrogate tombstone placed in front of him and the almost holy light cast upon the whole scene; alluding to an out of this world existence. "Atheists though they were, David and Marat, like so many other fervent social reformers of the modern world, seem to have created a new kind of religion."<ref>{{Harvnb|Janson|Rosenblum|1984|p=30}}.</ref> At the very center of these beliefs, there stood the republic.

[[File:Jacques-Louis David - Marie Antoinette on the Way to the Guillotine.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Marie Antoinette Being Taken to Her Execution (David)|Marie Antoinette Being Taken to Her Execution]]''. Sketched from a window in the rue Sainte-Honoré while the cart went past]]

After the King's execution, war broke out between the new Republic and virtually every major power in Europe. David, as a member of the [[Committee of General Security]], contributed directly to the Reign of Terror.<ref>{{Harvnb|Boime|1987|p=442}}.</ref> David organized his last festival: the [[Cult of the Supreme Being|festival of the Supreme Being]]. Robespierre had realized what a tremendous propaganda tool these festivals were, and he decided to create a new religion, mixing moral ideas with the Republic and based on the ideas of Rousseau. This process had already begun by confiscating church lands and requiring priests to take an oath to the state. The festivals, called fêtes, would be the method of indoctrination. On the appointed day, 20 Prairial by the [[French Republican Calendar|revolutionary calendar]], Robespierre spoke, descended steps, and with a torch presented to him by David, incinerated a cardboard image symbolizing atheism, revealing an image of wisdom underneath.

Soon, the war began to go well; French troops marched across the southern half of the Netherlands (which would later become Belgium), and the emergency that had placed the Committee of Public Safety in control was no more. Then plotters [[Fall of Robespierre|seized Robespierre]] at the National Convention and he was later guillotined, in effect ending the Reign of Terror. As Robespierre was arrested, David yelled to his friend "if you drink hemlock, I shall drink it with you."<ref>Carlyle, p. 384.</ref> After this, he supposedly fell ill, and did not attend the evening session because of "stomach pain", which saved him from being guillotined along with Robespierre. David was arrested and placed in prison twice, first from 2 August to 28 December 1794 and then from 29 May to 3 August 1795. Most of the time he served his sentence in the not uncomfortable [[Luxembourg Palace|Palais du Luxembourg]] in Paris.<ref name="Oxford"/> There he painted his own portrait, showing him much younger than he actually was, as well as that of his jailer.