Editing Information Age (section)

===1947–1969: Origins===
{{See also|Early history of video games|Early mainframe games}}
[[File:ENIAC Pennsylvania state historical marker.jpg|thumb|249x249px|A [[List of Pennsylvania state historical markers|Pennsylvania state historical marker]] in [[Philadelphia]] cites the creation of [[ENIAC]], the "first all-purpose digital computer", in 1946 as the beginning of the Information Age.]]
In 1947, the first working [[transistor]], the [[germanium]]-based [[point-contact transistor]], was invented by [[John Bardeen]] and [[Walter Houser Brattain]] while working under [[William Shockley]] at [[Bell Labs]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventions/transistor.htm|title=Transistor History – Invention of the Transistor|date=17 April 2015|author=Phil Ament|access-date=17 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813004951/http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventions/transistor.htm|archive-date=13 August 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> This led the way to more advanced [[digital computers]]. From the late 1940s, universities, military, and businesses developed computer systems to digitally replicate and automate previously manually performed mathematical calculations, with the [[LEO (computer)|LEO]] being the first commercially available general-purpose computer.

[[Data transmission|Digital communication]] became economical for widespread adoption after the invention of the personal computer in the 1970s. [[Claude Shannon]], a [[Bell Labs]] mathematician, is credited for having laid out the foundations of [[Digitization|digitalization]] in his pioneering 1948 article, ''A Mathematical Theory of Communication''.<ref>{{cite book|title=The mathematical theory of communication|last=Shannon|first=Claude E.|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=1963|isbn=0252725484|edition=4. print.|location=Urbana|pages=144|author2=Weaver, Warren}}</ref>

In 1948, Bardeen and Brattain patented an insulated-gate transistor (IGFET) with an inversion layer. Their concept, forms the basis of CMOS and DRAM technology today.<ref>{{cite book |author=Howard R. Duff |title=AIP Conference Proceedings |date=2001 |volume=550 |pages=3–32 |chapter=John Bardeen and transistor physics |doi=10.1063/1.1354371 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In 1957 at Bell Labs, Frosch and Derick were able to manufacture planar silicon dioxide transistors,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Frosch |first1=C. J. |last2=Derick |first2=L |date=1957 |title=Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1.2428650 |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |language=en |volume=104 |issue=9 |pages=547 |doi=10.1149/1.2428650}}</ref> later a team at Bell Labs demonstrated a working MOSFET.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lojek |first=Bo |title=History of Semiconductor Engineering |date=2007 |publisher=Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-540-34258-8 |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |page=321}}</ref> The first integrated circuit milestone was achieved by [[Jack Kilby]] in 1958.<ref>{{cite web |title=Milestones:First Semiconductor Integrated Circuit (IC), 1958 |url=http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:First_Semiconductor_Integrated_Circuit_%28IC%29,_1958 |access-date=3 August 2011 |work=IEEE Global History Network |publisher=IEEE}}</ref>

Other important technological developments included the invention of the monolithic [[integrated circuit]] chip by [[Robert Noyce]] at [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] in 1959,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Saxena |first=Arjun |title=Invention of Integrated Circuits: Untold Important Facts |publisher= |year=2009 |isbn= |location= |pages=x-xi}}</ref> made possible by the [[planar process]] developed by [[Jean Hoerni]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Saxena |first=Arjun |title=Invention of Integrated Circuits: Untold Important Facts |publisher= |year=2009 |isbn= |location= |pages=102–103}}</ref> In 1963, [[complementary MOS]] (CMOS) was developed by [[Chih-Tang Sah]] and [[Frank Wanlass]] at [[Fairchild Semiconductor]].<ref name="computerhistory19632">{{cite web |title=1963: Complementary MOS Circuit Configuration is Invented |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/complementary-mos-circuit-configuration-is-invented/ |access-date=6 July 2019 |website=[[Computer History Museum]]}}</ref> The [[self-aligned gate]] transistor, which further facilitated mass production, was invented in 1966 by Robert Bower at [[Hughes Aircraft Company|Hughes Aircraft]]<ref>{{Cite patent|number=US3472712A|title=Field-effect device with insulated gate|gdate=1969-10-14|invent1=Bower|inventor1-first=Robert W.|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US3472712A}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite patent|number=US3615934A|title=Insulated-gate field-effect device having source and drain regions formed in part by ion implantation and method of making same|gdate=1971-10-26|invent1=Bower|inventor1-first=Robert W.|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US3615934A}}</ref> and independently by Robert Kerwin, [[Donald L. Klein|Donald Klein]] and John Sarace at Bell Labs.<ref>{{Cite patent|number=US3475234A|title=Method for making mis structures|gdate=1969-10-28|invent1=Kerwin|invent2=Klein|invent3=Sarace|inventor1-first=Robert E.|inventor2-first=Donald L.|inventor3-first=John C.|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US3475234A/}}</ref>

In 1962 AT&T deployed the [[T-carrier]] for long-haul [[pulse-code modulation]] (PCM) digital voice transmission. The T1 format carried 24 pulse-code modulated, time-division multiplexed speech signals each encoded in 64&nbsp;kbit/s streams, leaving 8&nbsp;kbit/s of framing information which facilitated the synchronization and demultiplexing at the receiver. Over the subsequent decades the digitisation of voice became the norm for all but the last mile (where analogue continued to be the norm right into the late 1990s).

Following the development of [[MOS integrated circuit]] chips in the early 1960s, MOS chips reached higher [[transistor density]] and lower manufacturing costs than [[bipolar junction transistor|bipolar]] integrated circuits by 1964. MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by [[Moore's law]], leading to [[large-scale integration]] (LSI) with hundreds of transistors on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s. The application of MOS LSI chips to [[computing]] was the basis for the first [[microprocessors]], as engineers began recognizing that a complete [[computer processor]] could be contained on a single MOS LSI chip.<ref name="ieee">{{cite journal |last1=Shirriff |first1=Ken |title=The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors |journal=[[IEEE Spectrum]] |date=30 August 2016 |volume=53 |issue=9 |pages=48–54 |publisher=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] |doi=10.1109/MSPEC.2016.7551353 |s2cid=32003640 |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors |access-date=13 October 2019}}</ref> In 1968, Fairchild engineer [[Federico Faggin]] improved MOS technology with his development of the [[silicon-gate]] MOS chip, which he later used to develop the [[Intel 4004]], the first single-chip microprocessor.<ref>{{cite web |title=1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/microprocessor-integrates-cpu-function-onto-a-single-chip/ |website=Computer History Museum}}</ref> It was released by [[Intel]] in 1971, and laid the foundations for the [[microcomputer revolution]] that began in the 1970s.

MOS technology also led to the development of semiconductor [[image sensors]] suitable for [[digital cameras]].<ref name="Williams">{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=J. B. |title=The Electronics Revolution: Inventing the Future |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9783319490885 |pages=245–8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v4QlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA245}}</ref> The first such image sensor was the [[charge-coupled device]], developed by [[Willard S. Boyle]] and [[George E. Smith]] at Bell Labs in 1969,<ref>{{Cite book | title = Scientific charge-coupled devices | author = James R. Janesick | publisher = SPIE Press | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-0-8194-3698-6 | pages = 3–4 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3GyE4SWytn4C&pg=PA3 }}</ref> based on [[MOS capacitor]] technology.<ref name="Williams"/>