Editing Horn of Africa (section)

==History==
{{further|Sub-Saharan Africa#Horn of Africa|African empires#Horn of Africa}}

===Prehistory===
[[File:Dera rock art.jpg|thumb|Deka rock art in Deka Arbaa, [[Southern Region (Eritrea)|Debub]] region of [[Eritrea]]]]
Some of the earliest ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' fossils, the [[Omo remains]] (from ca. 233,000 years ago) and the [[Herto Man|Herto skull]] (from ca. 160,000 ago) have been found in the region, both in Ethiopia.<ref name="Vidal22">{{Cite journal |last1=Vidal |first1=Celine M. |last2=Lane |first2=Christine S. |author-link2=Christine Lane |last3=Asfawrossen |first3=Asrat |display-authors=etal |date=Jan 2022 |title=Age of the oldest known Homo sapiens from eastern Africa |journal=Nature |volume=601 |issue=7894 |pages=579–583 |bibcode=2022Natur.601..579V |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-04275-8 |pmc=8791829 |pmid=35022610}}</ref>

The findings of the Earliest Stone Tipped Projectiles from the [[Great Rift Valley, Ethiopia|Ethiopian Rift]] dated to more than 279,000 years ago "in combination with the existing archaeological, fossil and genetic evidence, isolate East Africa as a source of modern cultures and biology."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sahle|first1=Yonatan|last2=Hutchings|first2=W. Karl|last3=Braun|first3=David R.|last4=Sealy|first4=Judith C.|last5=Morgan|first5=Leah E.|last6=Negash|first6=Agazi|last7=Atnafu|first7=Balemwal|date=13 November 2013|title=Earliest Stone-Tipped Projectiles from the Ethiopian Rift Date to >279,000 Years Ago|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=8|issue=11|pages=e78092|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0078092|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3827237|pmid=24236011|bibcode=2013PLoSO...878092S|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cavalazzi|first1=B.|last2=Barbieri|first2=R.|last3=Gómez|first3=F.|last4=Capaccioni|first4=B.|last5=Olsson-Francis|first5=K.|last6=Pondrelli|first6=M.|last7=Rossi|first7=A.P.|last8=Hickman-Lewis|first8=K.|last9=Agangi|first9=A.|last10=Gasparotto|first10=G.|last11=Glamoclija|first11=M.|date=1 April 2019|title=The Dallol Geothermal Area, Northern Afar (Ethiopia)—An Exceptional Planetary Field Analog on Earth|journal=Astrobiology|volume=19|issue=4|pages=553–578|doi=10.1089/ast.2018.1926|issn=1531-1074|pmc=6459281|pmid=30653331|bibcode=2019AsBio..19..553C}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xwbxDQAAQBAJ&q=Cradle+of+Humankind|title=The Cradle of Humanity: How the changing landscape of Africa made us so smart|last=Maslin|first=Mark|date=18 January 2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-100971-6|language=en|access-date=18 October 2020|archive-date=22 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522141155/https://books.google.com/books?id=xwbxDQAAQBAJ&q=Cradle+of+Humankind#v=snippet&q=Cradle%20of%20Humankind&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to the [[Southern Dispersal]] scenario, the Southern route of the Out of Africa migration occurred in the Horn of Africa through the [[Bab el Mandeb]]. Today at the Bab-el-Mandeb straits, the Red Sea is about {{convert|12|mi|km|abbr=off}} wide, but 50,000 years ago it was much narrower and sea levels were 70 meters lower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached using simple rafts. Shell [[midden]]s 125,000 years old have been found in Eritrea,<ref name="pmid10811218">{{cite journal |vauthors=Walter RC, Buffler RT, Bruggemann JH, etal |title=Early human occupation of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea during the last interglacial |journal=Nature |volume=405 |issue=6782 |pages=65–9 |date=May 2000 |pmid=10811218 |doi=10.1038/35011048 |bibcode=2000Natur.405...65W |s2cid=4417823 }}</ref> indicating the diet of early humans included seafood obtained by [[beachcombing]].

Ethiopian and Eritrean [[agriculture]] established the earliest known use of the seed grass [[teff]] (''Poa abyssinica'') between 4000 and 1000 BCE.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=16-ejysyRCgC |title=The Agricultural Systems of the World |author=David B. Grigg |page=66 |date=1974 |publisher=C.U.P. |access-date=25 July 2013 |isbn=9780521098434 |archive-date=22 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522141156/https://books.google.com/books?id=16-ejysyRCgC |url-status=live }}</ref> Teff is used to make the flatbread [[injera]]/taita. [[Coffee]] also originated in Ethiopia and has since spread to become a worldwide beverage.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WKj__YqTU4AC|title=Plant Genetic Resources of Ethiopia|first1=J. M. M.|last1=Engels|first2=J. G.|last2=Hawkes|first3=M.|last3=Worede|date=21 March 1991|publisher=Cambridge University Press|via=Google Books|isbn=9780521384568|access-date=18 October 2020|archive-date=22 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522141246/https://books.google.com/books?id=WKj__YqTU4AC|url-status=live}}</ref>

Historian [[Christopher Ehret]], cited genetic evidence which had identified the Horn of Africa as a source of a genetic marker "[[Haplogroup E-M35|M35]]/[[Haplogroup E-M215|215]]" Y-chromosome lineage for a significant population component which moved north from that region into Egypt and the Levant. Ehret argued that this genetic distribution paralleled the spread of the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afrasian language family]] with the movement of people from the Horn of Africa into Egypt and added a new demic component to the existing population of Egypt 17,000 years ago.<ref name="Ancient Africa: A Global History, t">{{cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |title=Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE |date=20 June 2023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-24410-5 |pages=97, 167 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S5KjEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |language=en |access-date=22 December 2023 |archive-date=15 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715090326/https://books.google.com/books?id=S5KjEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Ancient history ===
{{main|Land of Punt|Dʿmt|Aksumite Empire|Maritime history of Somalia|Barbaria (East Africa)|Macrobia|Sesea|Ancient Somali City-States}}
{{further|History of Ethiopia|History of Eritrea|History of Somalia|History of Djibouti|Ethiopian historiography}}

The area comprising [[Somaliland]], [[Somalia]], [[Djibouti]], the [[Red Sea]] coast of [[Eritrea]] and [[Sudan]] is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancient [[Egyptians]] as ''[[Land of Punt|Punt]]'' (or "Ta Netjeru", meaning god's land), whose first mention dates to the 25th century BCE.<ref>Simson Najovits, ''Egypt, trunk of the tree, Volume 2'', (Algora Publishing: 2004), p.258.</ref>

[[Dʿmt]] was a kingdom located in Eritrea and northern [[Ethiopia]], which existed during the 8th and 7th centuries BCE. With its capital probably at [[Yeha]], the kingdom developed [[irrigation]] schemes, used [[plow]]s, grew [[millet]], and made [[iron]] tools and weapons. After the fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BCE, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms, until the rise of one of these kingdoms during the 1st century, the [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite Kingdom]], which was able to reunite the area.<ref>Pankhurst, Richard K.P. ''Addis Tribune'', "[https://web.archive.org/web/20060109162335/http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/01/17-01-03/Let.htm Let's Look Across the Red Sea I]", 17 January 2003 (archive.org mirror copy)</ref>

[[File:Stela aksum.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[King Ezana's Stela]] at [[Aksum]], symbol of the [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite civilization]].]]

The [[Kingdom of Aksum]] (also known as the Aksumite Empire) was an ancient state located in the [[Eritrea]] and [[Ethiopian highlands]], which thrived between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. A major player in the commerce between the [[Roman Empire]] and [[Ancient India]], Aksum's rulers facilitated trade by minting their own [[Aksumite currency|currency]]. The state also established its [[hegemony]] over the declining [[Kingdom of Kush]] and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the [[Arabian Peninsula]], eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the [[Himyarite Kingdom]]. Under [[Ezana]] (fl. 320–360), the kingdom of Aksum became the first major empire to adopt [[Christianity]], and was named by [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] as one of the four great powers of his time, along with [[Sassanid Empire|Persia]], [[Roman Empire|Rome]] and [[Han dynasty|China]].

[[File:MapHymiariteKingdom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Ancient trading centers in the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula according to the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'']]

Somalia was an important link in the Horn, connecting the region's commerce with the rest of the ancient world. Somali sailors and merchants were the main suppliers of [[frankincense]], [[myrrh]] and spices, all of which were valuable luxuries to the [[Ancient Egyptians]], [[Phoenicians]], [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaeans]], [[Babylonians]] and [[Roman Empire|Romans]].<ref>Phoenicia, pg. 199.</ref><ref>Rose, Jeanne, and John Hulburd, ''The Aromatherapy Book'', p. 94.</ref> The Romans consequently began to refer to the region as ''Regio Aromatica''. In the [[Classical antiquity|classical era]], several flourishing [[Sesea|Somali city-states]] such as [[Opone]], [[Mosylon]] and [[Malao]] also competed with the [[Sabaeans]], [[Parthia]]ns and [[Axumite Empire|Axumites]] for the rich [[India|Indo]]-[[Greco-Roman]] trade.<ref>Vine, Peter, ''Oman in History'', p. 324.</ref>

The [[History of Islam|birth of Islam]] opposite the Horn's Red Sea coast meant that local merchants and sailors living on the [[Arabian Peninsula]] gradually came under the influence of the new religion through their converted [[Arab]] Muslim trading partners. With the migration of Muslim families from the [[Islamic world]] to the Horn in the early centuries of Islam, and the peaceful conversion of the local population by Muslim scholars in the following centuries, the ancient city-states eventually transformed into Islamic [[Mogadishu]], [[Berbera]], [[Zeila]], [[Barawa]] and [[Merka]], which were part of the ''[[Barbara (region)|Barbara civilization]]''.<ref name="Laitin">David D. Laitin, Said S. Samatar, ''Somalia: Nation in Search of a State'', (Westview Press: 1987), p. 15.</ref><ref>I.M. Lewis, ''A modern history of Somalia: nation and state in the Horn of Africa'', 2nd edition, revised, illustrated, (Westview Press: 1988), p.20</ref> The city of Mogadishu came to be known as the "City of Islam"<ref>Brons, Maria (2003), ''Society, Security, Sovereignty and the State in Somalia: From Statelessness to Statelessness?'', p. 116.</ref> and controlled the East African gold trade for several centuries.<ref>Morgan, W. T. W. (1969), ''East Africa: Its Peoples and Resources'', p. 18.</ref>

===Middle Ages and Early Modern era===
{{main|Adal Sultanate|Ajuran Sultanate|Isaaq Sultanate|Ethiopian Empire|Sultanate of Showa|Sultanate of Ifat|Sultanate of the Geledi|Zagwe dynasty|Sultanate of Mogadishu|Aussa Sultanate|Majeerteen Sultanate|Sultanate of Hobyo| Khedivate's Somali Coast|Ottoman Zeila
}}
{{further|History of Africa#Horn of Africa}}

During the [[Middle Ages]], several powerful empires dominated the regional trade in the Horn, including the [[Adal Sultanate]], the [[Ajuran Sultanate]], the [[Ethiopian Empire]], the [[Zagwe dynasty]], and the [[Sultanate of the Geledi]].

The [[Sultanate of Showa]], established in 896, was one of the oldest local [[Islam]]ic states. It was centered in the former [[Shewa]] province in central Ethiopia. The polity was succeeded by the [[Sultanate of Ifat]] around 1285. Ifat was governed from its capital at [[Zeila]] in Somaliland and was the easternmost district of the former Shewa Sultanate.<ref name=C1>{{cite book|author-link=Nehemia Levtzion|author1=Nehemia Levtzion|author2=Randall Pouwels|title=The History of Islam in Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J1Ipt5A9mLMC&pg=PA228|year=2000|publisher=Ohio University Press|isbn=978-0-8214-4461-0|page=228|access-date=11 November 2016|archive-date=22 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522141259/https://books.google.com/books?id=J1Ipt5A9mLMC&pg=PA228#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Adal Sultanate]] was a medieval multi-ethnic [[Muslim]] state centered in the Horn region. At its height, it controlled large parts of Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea. Many of the historic cities in the region, such as [[Amud]], [[Maduna]], [[Abasa, Somalia|Abasa]], [[Berbera]], [[Zeila]] and [[Harar]], flourished during the kingdom's golden age. This period that left behind numerous [[courtyard|courtyard houses]], [[mosque]]s, [[shrine]]s and [[defensive wall|walled enclosures]]. Under the leadership of rulers such as [[Sabr ad-Din II]], [[Mansur ad-Din of Adal|Mansur ad-Din]], [[Jamal ad-Din II]], [[Shams ad-Din ibn Muhammad|Shams ad-Din]], General [[Mahfuz]] and [[Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]], Adalite armies continued the struggle against the [[Solomonic dynasty]], a campaign historically known as the [[Abyssinian–Adal War|Conquest of Abyssinia]] or ''Futuh al Habash''.

[[File:Gondereshe2008.jpg|thumb|left|The [[citadel]] in [[Gondershe]], an important city in the medieval [[Ajuran Sultanate]]]]

Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, the [[Ajuran Sultanate]] successfully resisted an [[Oromo people|Oromo]] invasion from the west and a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] incursion from the east during the [[Gaal Madow]] and the [[Ajuran Sultanate#Ajuran-Portuguese battles|Ajuran-Portuguese wars]]. Trading routes dating from the ancient and early medieval periods of [[Maritime history of Somalia|Somali maritime enterprise]] were also strengthened or re-established, and the state left behind an extensive [[Somali architecture|architectural legacy]]. Many of the hundreds of ruined castles and fortresses that dot the landscape of Somalia today are attributed to Ajuran engineers,<ref>Shaping of Somali Society pg 101</ref> including a lot of the [[pillar tomb]] fields, [[necropolis]]es and ruined cities built during that era. The royal family, the [[House of Gareen]], also expanded its territories and established its hegemonic rule through a skillful combination of warfare, trade linkages and alliances.<ref>Horn and Crescent: Cultural Change and Traditional Islam on the East African Coast, 800–1900 (African Studies) by Pouwels, Randall L.. pg 15</ref>

The [[Zagwe dynasty]] ruled many parts of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea from approximately 1137 to 1270. The name of the dynasty comes from the [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]]-speaking [[Agaw people]] of northern Ethiopia. From 1270 onwards for many centuries, the [[Solomonic dynasty]] ruled the [[Ethiopian Empire]].

In 1270, the [[Amharas|Amhara]] nobleman [[Yekuno Amlak]], who claimed descent from the last [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] king and ultimately the [[Queen of Sheba]], overthrew the [[Agaw people|Agaw]] [[Zagwe dynasty]] at the [[Battle of Ansata]], ushering his reign as [[Emperor of Ethiopia]]. While initially a rather small and politically unstable entity, the empire managed to expand significantly during the [[crusades]] of [[Amda Seyon I]] (1314–1344) and his successors, becoming the dominant force in [[East Africa]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Erlikh |first1=Hagai |title=The Nile Histories, Cultures, Myths |year=2000 |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |page=41 |isbn=9781555876722 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LcsJosc239YC&dq=eleni+hadiya+princess&pg=PA41 |access-date=19 December 2023 |archive-date=22 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522141703/https://books.google.com/books?id=LcsJosc239YC&dq=eleni+hadiya+princess&pg=PA41#v=onepage&q=eleni%20hadiya%20princess&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hassen |first1=Mohammed |title=Oromo of Ethiopia with special emphasis on the Gibe region |publisher=University of London |page=22 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29226/1/10731321.pdf |access-date=4 November 2023 |archive-date=13 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213003344/https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29226/1/10731321.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Lalibela_Église_Bet_Giyorgis.JPG|thumb|The [[Lalibela]] churches carved by the [[Zagwe dynasty]] in the 12th century]]

In the early 15th century, Ethiopia sought to make diplomatic contact with European kingdoms for the first time since Aksumite times. A letter from King [[Henry IV of England]] to the Emperor of Abyssinia survives.<ref>Ian Mortimer, ''The Fears of Henry IV'' (2007), p. 111</ref> In 1428, the Emperor [[Yeshaq I of Ethiopia|Yeshaq]] sent two emissaries to [[Alfonso V of Aragon]], who sent return emissaries who failed to complete the return trip.<ref name="Beshah">[[#Beshah|Beshah & Aregay (1964)]], pp. 13–14.</ref>

The first continuous relations with a European country began in 1508 with Portugal under Emperor [[Dawit II of Ethiopia|Lebna Dengel]], who had just inherited the throne from his father.<ref>[[#Beshah|Beshah & Aregay (1964)]], p. 25.</ref> This proved to be an important development, for when Abyssinia was subjected to the attacks of the [[Adal Sultanate]] General and [[Imam]] [[Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]] (called "''Gurey''" or "''Grañ''", both meaning "the Left-handed"), Portugal assisted the Ethiopian emperor by sending weapons and four hundred men, who helped his son [[Gelawdewos of Ethiopia|Gelawdewos]] defeat Ahmad and re-establish his rule.<ref>[[#Beshah|Beshah & Aregay (1964)]], pp. 45–52.</ref> This [[Abyssinian–Adal War|Ethiopian–Adal War]] was also one of the first proxy wars in the region as the [[Ottoman Empire]], and Portugal took sides in the conflict.

[[File:Fakr Ud Din Mosque.jpg|thumb|left|Engraving of the 13th century [[Fakr ad-Din Mosque]] built by Fakr ad-Din, the first Sultan of the [[Sultanate of Mogadishu]]]]

When Emperor [[Susenyos of Ethiopia|Susenyos]] converted to [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] in 1624, years of revolt and civil unrest followed resulting in thousands of deaths.<ref>[[#Beshah|Beshah & Aregay (1964)]], pp. 91, 97–104.</ref> The [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missionaries had offended the Orthodox faith of the local Ethiopians. On 25 June 1632, Susenyos's son, Emperor [[Fasilides of Ethiopia|Fasilides]], declared the state religion to again be [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity]], and expelled the Jesuit missionaries and other Europeans.<ref>[[#Beshah|Beshah & Aregay (1964)]], p. 105.</ref><ref>van Donzel, Emeri, "Fasilädäs" in Siegbert Uhlig, ed., ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha'' (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005), p. 500.</ref>

During the end of 18th and the beginning of 19th century the Yejju dynasty (more specifically, the Warasek) ruled north Ethiopia changing the official language of Amhara people to Afaan Oromo, including inside the court of Gondar which was capital of the empire. Founded by [[Ali I of Yejju]] several successive descendants of him and [[Abba Seru Gwangul]] ruled with their army coming from mainly their clan the [[Yejju Oromo tribe]] as well as Wollo and Raya Oromo.<ref>Pankhurst, Richard, ''The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles'', (London:Oxford University Press, 1967), pp. 139–43.</ref>

[[File:ST-Massowa.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|The port of [[Massawa]], Eritrea, founded by the Arabs and later modernized and expanded [[Italian Eritrea|by the Italians]], in a 19th-century engraving]]
[[File:Hobyo Sultanate Cavalry And Fort.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|The [[Sultanate of Hobyo]]'s [[cavalry]] and fort]]

The [[Sultanate of the Geledi]] was a Somali kingdom administered by the Gobroon dynasty, which ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It was established by the Ajuran soldier [[Ibrahim Adeer]], who had defeated various [[vassal]]s of the Ajuran Empire and established the ''House of Gobroon''. The [[dynasty]] reached its apex under the successive reigns of Sultan [[Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim]], who successfully consolidated Gobroon power during the [[Bardera|Bardera wars]], and Sultan [[Ahmed Yusuf (Gobroon)|Ahmed Yusuf]], who forced regional powers such as the [[Oman|Omani Empire]] to submit [[tribute]].

The [[Isaaq Sultanate]] was a [[Somali people|Somali]] kingdom that ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It spanned the territories of the [[Isaaq]] clan, descendants of the [[Banu Hashim]] clan,<ref name="Lewisapd">I. M. Lewis, ''A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa'', (LIT Verlag Münster: 1999), p. 157.</ref> in modern-day [[Somaliland]] and [[Ethiopia]]. The sultanate was governed by the [[Guled Dynasty|Reer Guled]] branch of the [[Eidagale]] sub-clan established by the first sultan, Sultan [[Guled Abdi (Sultan)|Guled Abdi]]. The sultanate is the pre-colonial predecessor to the modern [[Somaliland]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Taariikhda Beerta Suldaan Cabdilaahi ee Hargeysa {{!}} Somalidiasporanews.com|url=http://www.qurbejoog.com/taariikhda-beerta-suldaan-cabdilaahi-ee-hargeysa/|access-date=9 January 2021|language=en-US|archive-date=19 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210219181303/http://www.qurbejoog.com/taariikhda-beerta-suldaan-cabdilaahi-ee-hargeysa/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Genealogies of the Somal|date=1896|publisher=Eyre and Spottiswoode (London)|language=english}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Taariikhda Saldanada Reer Guuleed Ee Somaliland.Abwaan:Ibraahim-rashiid Cismaan Guure (aboor). {{!}} Togdheer News Network|url=http://togdheernews.com/articles/31/05/2016/taariikhda-saldanada-reer-guuleed-ee-somaliland-abwaanibraahim-rashiid-cismaan-guure-aboor/|access-date=9 August 2021|language=en-US|archive-date=11 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111020220/http://togdheernews.com/articles/31/05/2016/taariikhda-saldanada-reer-guuleed-ee-somaliland-abwaanibraahim-rashiid-cismaan-guure-aboor/|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to oral tradition, prior to the Guled dynasty the [[Isaaq]] clan-family were ruled by a dynasty of the Tolje'lo branch starting from, descendants of Ahmed nicknamed Tol Je'lo, the eldest son of [[Ishaaq bin Ahmed|Sheikh Ishaaq]]'s [[Harari people|Harari]] wife. There were eight Tolje'lo rulers in total, starting with Boqor Harun ({{Langx|so|Boqor Haaruun}}) who ruled the Isaaq Sultanate for centuries starting from the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite web|date=7 October 2017|title=Degmada Cusub Ee Dacarta Oo Loogu Wanqalay Munaasibad Kulmisay Madaxda Iyo Haldoorka Somaliland|url=https://www.hubaalmedia.net/degmada-cusub-ee-dacarta-oo-loogu-wanqalay-munaasibad-kulmisay-madaxda-iyo-haldoorka-somaliland/|access-date=11 August 2021|website=Hubaal Media|language=en-US|archive-date=11 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811205734/https://www.hubaalmedia.net/degmada-cusub-ee-dacarta-oo-loogu-wanqalay-munaasibad-kulmisay-madaxda-iyo-haldoorka-somaliland/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Taariikhda Toljecle|url=https://www.tashiwanaag.com/toljecle-taariikh-ahaan.html|access-date=9 August 2021|website=www.tashiwanaag.com|archive-date=9 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809022129/https://www.tashiwanaag.com/toljecle-taariikh-ahaan.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The last Tolje'lo ruler [[Garad]] Dhuh Barar ({{langx|so|Dhuux Baraar}}) was overthrown by a coalition of Isaaq clans. The once strong Tolje'lo clan were scattered and took refuge amongst the [[Habr Awal]] with whom they still mostly live.<ref>{{Citation|title=Taariikhda Boqortooyadii Axmed Sheikh Isaxaaq ee Toljecle 1787| date=23 February 2020 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6MfB4XvREbI|language=en|access-date=15 August 2021|archive-date=15 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815225220/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6MfB4XvREbI|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>NEW ISSUES IN REFUGEE RESEARCH Working Paper No. 65 Pastoral society and transnational refugees: population movements in Somaliland and eastern Ethiopia 1988 – 2000 Guido Ambroso, Table 1, pg.5</ref>

The [[Majeerteen Sultanate]] (Migiurtinia) was another prominent Somali sultanate based in the Horn region. Ruled by [[Boqor|King]] [[Osman Mahamuud]] during its golden age, it controlled much of northeastern and central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The polity had all of the organs of an integrated modern state and maintained a robust trading network. It also entered into treaties with foreign powers and exerted strong centralized authority on the domestic front.<ref name="HOA">''Horn of Africa'', Volume 15, Issues 1–4, (Horn of Africa Journal: 1997), p.130.</ref><ref name="NEAS">Michigan State University. African Studies Center, Northeast African studies, Volumes 11–12, (Michigan State University Press: 1989), p.32.</ref> Much of the Sultanate's former domain is today coextensive with the autonomous [[Puntland]] region in northern Somalia.<ref name="IIA">Istituto italo-africano, ''[[Africa: Rivista trimestrale di studi e documentazione|Africa: rivista trimestrale di studi e documentazione]]'', Volume 56, (Edizioni africane: 2001), p.591.</ref>

The [[Sultanate of Hobyo]] was a 19th-century Somali kingdom founded by Sultan [[Yusuf Ali Kenadid]]. Initially, Kenadid's goal was to seize control of the neighboring Majeerteen Sultanate, which was then ruled by his cousin Boqor Osman Mahamuud. However, he was unsuccessful in this endeavor, and was eventually forced into exile in [[Yemen]]. A decade later, in the 1870s, Kenadid returned from the [[Arabian Peninsula]] with a band of [[Hadhramaut|Hadhrami]] [[musketeer]]s and a group of devoted lieutenants. With their assistance, he managed to establish the kingdom of Hobyo, which would rule much of northern and central Somalia during the early modern period.<ref name="Metz">[[Helen Chapin Metz]], ''Somalia: a country study'', (The Division: 1993), p.10.</ref>

===Modern history===
{{main|Italian Eritrea|Italian Somaliland|Italian East Africa|British Somaliland|French Somaliland|French Territory of the Afars and the Issas}}
{{see also|Dervish movement (Somali)|Agar Maqnat|British expedition to Abyssinia|First Italo-Abyssinian War|Second Italo-Abyssinian War|East African Campaign (World War II)|Somaliland Campaign|Ogaden War|Ethiopian Civil War|Eritrean War of Independence|Djiboutian–Eritrean border conflict|Ethiopian-Somali conflict|Somali Civil War|Piracy off the coast of Somalia}}
[[File:Africa 1909, Edward Hertslet (Map of Africa by treaty, 3rd edition).jpg|thumb|A 1909 map of Africa; the Horn of Africa is the easternmost projection of the African continent.]]
In the period following the opening of the [[Suez Canal]] in 1869, when European powers [[Scramble for Africa|scrambled for territory in Africa]] and tried to establish [[coaling station]]s for their ships, Italy invaded and occupied [[Eritrea]]. On 1 January 1890, Eritrea officially became a colony of [[Italy]]. In 1896 further Italian incursion into the horn was decisively halted by Ethiopian forces. By 1936 however, Eritrea became a [[Provinces of Ethiopia|province]] of [[Italian East Africa]] (Africa Orientale Italiana), along with [[Ethiopia]] and [[Italian Somaliland]]. By 1941, Eritrea had about 760,000 inhabitants, including 70,000 Italians.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Tesfagiorgis | first = Gebre Hiwet | title = Emergent Eritrea: challenges of economic development | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iuCBNoOpQyEC&pg=PA111 | publisher = The Red Sea Press | year = 1993 | page = 111 | isbn = 978-0-932415-91-2 | access-date = 14 October 2015 | archive-date = 16 February 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230216165941/https://books.google.com/books?id=iuCBNoOpQyEC&pg=PA111 | url-status = live }}</ref> The Commonwealth armed forces, along with the Ethiopian patriotic resistance, expelled those of Italy in 1941,<ref>[http://www.statoids.com/uer.html Regions of Eritrea] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812040841/http://www.statoids.com/uer.html |date=12 August 2011 }} (accessed 17 November 2009)</ref> and took over the area's administration. The British continued to administer the territory under a [[UN Mandate]] until 1951, when Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia, per UN resolution 390 A (V) adopted December 1950.

The strategic importance of Eritrea, due to its [[Red Sea]] coastline and mineral resources, was the main cause for the federation with Ethiopia, which in turn led to Eritrea's annexation as Ethiopia's 14th province [[Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea#Aftermath|in 1962]]. This was the culmination of a gradual process of takeover by the Ethiopian authorities, a process which included a 1959 edict establishing the compulsory teaching of [[Amharic]], the main language of Ethiopia, in all Eritrean schools. The lack of regard for the Eritrean population led to the formation of an independence movement in the early 1960s (1961), which erupted into a [[Eritrean War of Independence|30-year war]] against successive Ethiopian governments that ended in 1991. Following a UN-supervised [[Eritrean independence referendum, 1993|referendum]] in Eritrea (dubbed [[UNOVER]]) in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence, Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993.<ref name="Britannica_Eritrea-page20">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-37675/Eritrea |title=Eritrea – The spreading revolution |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Article |access-date=16 October 2007 |archive-date=12 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012134946/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-37675/Eritrea |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1998, a border dispute with Ethiopia led to the [[Eritrean-Ethiopian War]].<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/12/07/news/eritrea.php Eritrea orders Westerners in UN mission out in 10 days] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619042941/http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/12/07/news/eritrea.php |date=19 June 2008 }}. ''International Herald Tribune''. 7 December 2005</ref>

[[File:Raheita Incident 1898.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Eritrean Ascari]]s, colonial troops of the Italian Army, in a 1898 wood engraving]]
[[File:Porta Ai Giardini, Mogadishu.jpg|thumb|upright|Porta di Giardini (Gate Gardens) at Mogadishu market, [[Italian Somaliland]]]]
[[File:Engelse kameelruiters - English camel troopers.jpg|thumb|upright|British camel troopers in [[British Somaliland]]]]
[[File:Damagedsomalitank.jgp.jpg|thumb|upright|Somali engineers repair a captured Ethiopian [[T-34 tank|T-34/85 Model 1969 tank]] for use by the [[Western Somali Liberation Front]] during the [[Ogaden War]], March 1978]]
[[File:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|upright|United Nations soldiers, part of the [[United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea]], monitoring [[Eritrea–Ethiopia boundary]] (2005)]]

From 1862 until 1894, the land to the north of the [[Gulf of Tadjoura]] situated in modern-day [[Djibouti]] was called ''Obock'' and was ruled by [[Somali people|Somali]] and [[Afar people|Afar]] [[Sultan]]s, local authorities with whom [[France]] signed various treaties between 1883 and 1887 to first gain a foothold in the region.<ref name="Uwechue">Raph Uwechue, ''Africa year book and who's who'', (Africa Journal Ltd.: 1977), p.209.</ref><ref>Hugh Chisholm (ed.), ''The encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information'', Volume 25, (At the University press: 1911), p.383.</ref><ref name="Apcoatf">''A Political Chronology of Africa'', (Taylor & Francis), p.132.</ref> In 1894, [[Léonce Lagarde]] established a permanent French administration in the [[Djibouti (city)|city of Djibouti]] and named the region ''Côte française des Somalis'' ([[French Somaliland]]), a name which continued until 1967.

In 1958, on the eve of neighboring [[Somalia]]'s independence in 1960, a [[referendum]] was held in the territory to decide whether to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum favoured continued association with France, partly due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans.<ref name=Barrington2006>Barrington, Lowell, ''After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States'', (University of Michigan Press: 2006), p.115</ref> There was also reports of widespread [[vote rigging]], with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the polls.<ref>[[#Shillington|Shillington (2005)]], p. 360.</ref> The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by [[Mahmoud Harbi]], Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later.<ref name=Barrington2006/> Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977. [[Hassan Gouled Aptidon]], a Somali politician who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, became the nation's first president (1977–1999).<ref name=Barrington2006/> In early 2011, the Djiboutian citizenry took part in a [[2011 Djiboutian protests|series of protests]] against the long-serving government, which were associated with the larger [[Arab Spring]] demonstrations. The unrest eventually subsided by April of the year, and Djibouti's ruling [[People's Rally for Progress]] party was re-elected to office.

The [[Dervish movement (Nugaal)|Dervish]] existed for 25 years, from 1895 until 1920. The [[Turkish people|Turks]] named Hassan [[Emir]] of the Somali nation,<ref>I.M. Lewis, ''The modern history of Somaliland: from nation to state'', (Weidenfeld & Nicolson: 1965), p. 78</ref> and the [[German people|Germans]] promised to officially recognize any territories the Dervishes were to acquire.<ref>Thomas P. Ofcansky, Historical dictionary of Ethiopia, (The Scarecrow Press, Inc.: 2004), p.405</ref> After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain's new policy of [[Airstrike|aerial bombardment]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Samatar | first = Said Sheikh | title = Oral Poetry and Somali Nationalism | url = https://archive.org/details/oralpoetrysomali00sama | url-access = limited | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1982 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/oralpoetrysomali00sama/page/n144 131]& 135 | isbn = 978-0-521-23833-5}}</ref> As a result of this bombardment, former Dervish territories were turned into a [[protectorate]] of Britain. [[Italy]] faced similar opposition from Somali [[Sultan]]s and armies, and did not acquire full control of modern Somalia until the [[Fascist|Fascist era]] in late 1927. This occupation lasted until 1941, and was replaced by a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[military administration]]. Former British Somaliland would remain, along with Italian Somaliland, a [[United Nations Trusteeship|trusteeship]] of Italy, between 1950 and 1960. The Union of the two countries in 1960 formed the Somali Republic. A civilian government was formed, and on 20 July 1961, through a popular [[referendum]], the [[constitution]] drafted in 1960 was ratified.<ref>Greystone Press Staff, ''The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East'', (Greystone Press: 1967), p.338.</ref>

Due to its longstanding ties with the [[Arab world]], the Somali Republic was accepted in 1974 as a member of the [[Arab League]].<ref name="Frankel">Benjamin Frankel, ''The Cold War, 1945–1991: Leaders and other important figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World'', (Gale Research: 1992), p.306.</ref> During the same year, the nation's former [[Socialism|socialist]] administration also chaired the [[Organization of African Unity]], the predecessor of the [[African Union]].<ref name="Yang">Oihe Yang, ''Africa South of the Sahara 2001'', 30th Ed., (Taylor and Francis: 2000), p.1025.</ref> In 1991, the [[Somali Civil War]] broke out, which saw the dissolving of the union and Somaliland regaining its independence, along with the collapse of the central government and the emergence of numerous autonomous polities, including the [[Puntland]] administration in the north.<ref name="NYT">{{cite news| title = The Signs Say Somaliland, but the World Says Somalia| newspaper = New York Times| date = 5 June 2006| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/05/world/africa/05somaliland.html| access-date = 2 February 2010| first = Marc| last = Lacey| archive-date = 27 June 2011| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110627215844/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/05/world/africa/05somaliland.html| url-status = live}}</ref> Somalia's inhabitants subsequently reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either [[Civil law (legal system)|secular]], [[religious law|Islamic]] or [[customary law]], with a provision for appeal of all sentences. A [[Transitional Federal Government]] was subsequently created in 2004.<ref name=2009factbook>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070612204029/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 June 2007|title=Somalia|access-date=31 May 2009|date=14 May 2009|work=[[World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref> The [[Federal Government of Somalia]] was established on 20 August 2012, concurrent with the end of the TFG's interim mandate.<ref name="Fcacsunesinpshm">{{cite news|title=Somalia: UN Envoy Says Inauguration of New Parliament in Somalia 'Historic Moment'|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208220474.html|access-date=24 August 2012|newspaper=Forum on China-Africa Cooperation|date=21 August 2012|archive-date=14 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014234626/http://allafrica.com/stories/201208220474.html|url-status=live}}</ref> It represents the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war.<ref name="Fcacsunesinpshm"/> The [[Federal Parliament of Somalia]] serves as the government's [[Legislature|legislative]] branch.<ref name="Gttsdpc">{{cite web|title=Guidebook to the Somali Draft Provisional Constitution|url=http://unpos.unmissions.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=v067edqd7a8%3D&tabid=9705&language=en-US|access-date=2 August 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120021547/http://unpos.unmissions.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=v067edqd7a8%3D&tabid=9705&language=en-US|archive-date=20 January 2013}}</ref>

Modern Ethiopia and its current borders are a result of significant territorial reduction in the north and expansion in the east and south toward its present borders, owing to several migrations, commercial integration, treaties as well as conquests, particularly by [[Menelik II of Ethiopia|Emperor Menelik II]] and [[Ras Gobena]].<ref name="Young">John Young. "Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia" Third World Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 2 (June 1998) pp. 192</ref> From the central province of Shoa, Menelik set off to subjugate and incorporate 'the lands and people of the South, East and West into an empire.'<ref name="Young"/><ref>the people subjugated and incorporated were the Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta and other groups. International Crisis Group. "Ethiopia: Ethnic Federalism and its Discontents" Africa Report No. 153, (4 September 2009) pp. 2</ref> He did this with the help of Ras Gobena's Shewan Oromo militia, began expanding his kingdom to the south and east, expanding into areas that had not been held since the invasion of [[Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi]], and other areas that had never been under his rule, resulting in the borders of Ethiopia of today.<ref>''Great Britain and Ethiopia 1897–1910: Competition for Empire'' Edward C. Keefer, International Journal of African Studies'' Vol. 6 No. 3 (1973) page 470''</ref> Menelik had signed the [[Treaty of Wichale]] with Italy in May 1889, in which Italy would recognize Ethiopia's sovereignty so long as Italy could control a small area of northern Tigray (part of modern Eritrea).<ref>[[#Negash|Negash (2005)]], pp. 13–14.</ref> In return, Italy was to provide Menelik with arms and support him as emperor.<ref name="Tekeste">[[#Negash|Negash (2005)]], p. 14.</ref> The Italians used the time between the signing of the treaty and its ratification by the Italian government to further expand their territorial claims. Italy began a state funded program of resettlement for landless Italians in Eritrea, which increased tensions between the Eritrean peasants and the Italians.<ref name="Tekeste"/> This conflict erupted in the [[Battle of Adwa]] on 1 March 1896, in which Italy's colonial forces were defeated by the Ethiopians.<ref>[[#Negash|Negash (2005)]], p. 14, and ICG "Ethnic Federalism and its Discontents" pp 2; Italy lost over 4.600 nationals in this battle.</ref>

The early 20th century in Ethiopia was marked by the reign of Emperor [[Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia|Haile Selassie I]], who came to power after [[Iyasu V of Ethiopia|Iyasu V]] was deposed. In 1935, Haile Selassie's troops fought and lost the [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]], after which Italy annexed Ethiopia to [[Italian East Africa]].<ref>Clapham, Christopher, "Ḫaylä Śəllase" in Siegbert von Uhlig, ed., ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha'' (Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005), pp. 1062–3.</ref> Haile Selassie subsequently appealed to the [[League of Nations]], delivering an address that made him a worldwide figure and 1935's [[Time Person of the Year|''Time'' magazine Man of the Year]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,755559-1,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090730014234/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,755559-1,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 July 2009 |title=Man of the Year |magazine=TIME |date=6 January 1936 |access-date=16 March 2009}}</ref> Following the entry of Italy into World War II, [[British Empire]] forces, together with patriot Ethiopian fighters, liberated Ethiopia during the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]] in 1941.<ref>Clapham, "Ḫaylä Śəllase", ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica'', p. 1063.</ref>

Haile Selassie's reign came to an end in 1974, when a Soviet-backed [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] [[military junta]], the [[Derg]] led by [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]], deposed him, and established a one-party [[communist state]], which was called the [[People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia]]. In July 1977, the [[Ogaden War]] broke out after the Somalia government of [[Siad Barre]] sought to incorporate the predominantly Somali-inhabited [[Ogaden]] region into a Pan-Somali [[Greater Somalia]]. By September 1977, the [[Military of Somalia|Somali army]] controlled 90 percent of the Ogaden, but was later forced to withdraw after Ethiopia's Derg received assistance from the [[USSR]], [[Cuba]], [[South Yemen]], [[East Germany]]<ref>{{Cite book| last = Dagne | first = Haile Gabriel | title = The commitment of the German Democratic Republic in Ethiopia: a study based on Ethiopian sources | publisher = Lit; Global | year = 2006 | location = Münster, London | isbn = 978-3-8258-9535-8}}</ref> and [[North Korea]], including around 15,000 Cuban combat troops.

In 1989, the [[Tigrayan Peoples' Liberation Front]] (TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements to form the [[Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front]] (EPRDF), and eventually managed to overthrow Mengistu's dictatorial regime in 1991. A transitional government, composed of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution, was then set up. The first free and democratic election took place later in 1995, when Ethiopia's longest-serving Prime Minister [[Meles Zenawi]] was elected to office. As with other nations in the Horn region, Ethiopia maintained its historically close relations with countries in the Middle East during this period of change.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ethioembassy.org.uk/news_archive/EFP_ethio-yemen_relations.htm |title=Core Principles of Ethiopia's Foreign Policy: Ethiopia-Yemen relations |publisher=Ethioembassy.org.uk |access-date=25 July 2013 |archive-date=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510230458/http://www.ethioembassy.org.uk/news_archive/EFP_ethio-yemen_relations.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Zenawi died in 2012, but his [[Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front]] (EPRDF) party remains the ruling political coalition in Ethiopia.