Editing Holkham National Nature Reserve (section)

== Flora and fauna ==

=== Birds ===

[[File:Geese at dawn - geograph.org.uk - 599662.jpg|alt=flock of geese rising from fields|[[Pink-footed goose|Pink-footed geese]] leaving the grazing marshes at dawn|thumb]]
As many as 50,000 [[pink-footed goose|pink-footed geese]], 13,000 [[Eurasian wigeon]] and 7,000 [[brant goose|Brent geese]] winter at Holkham, making it of international importance for these species.<ref name= holkham/> Up to 400 [[greater white-fronted goose|white-fronted geese]] and a few [[tundra bean goose|tundra bean geese]] may join the wildfowl flocks, and the odd [[peregrine falcon]], [[short-eared owl]], [[merlin (bird)|merlin]], [[western marsh harrier|marsh harrier]] or [[hen harrier]] may hunt over the fields.<ref name = harrup/> The shingle banks and foreshore hold wintering flocks of [[horned lark|shore larks]], [[snow bunting]]s and [[twite]],<ref name= encitation/> and [[wader]]s like [[red knot|knots]], [[Eurasian curlew|curlew]]s, [[dunlin]]s and [[grey plover]] probe for [[invertebrate]]s in the mud flats.<ref name= holkham/>

Spring [[bird migration|migration]] is relatively quiet, although sightings of [[ring ouzel]] and [[common firecrest|firecrest]] are possible amongst the more common arrivals. Breeding birds include [[northern lapwing|lapwings]], [[common snipe]], [[pied avocet]]s, [[common redshank]]s and marsh harriers on the grazing marshes, [[common ringed plover|ringed plovers]] and [[little tern]]s on the beach, and [[black-headed gull|black-headed]], [[European herring gull|herring]] and [[lesser black-backed gull]]s on the salt marsh. The small [[grey heron]] colony has been joined by [[little egret]]s,<ref name = harrup/> and, from 2010, by [[Eurasian spoonbill]]s.<ref name=spoonbill>{{cite web|author=Natural England |title=Breeding spoonbills return to Holkham |url=http://www.birdguides.com/webzine/article.asp?a=2889<!--originally from http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/about_us/news/2011/120911.aspx--> |publisher=BirdGuides}} Retrieved 13 April 2017.</ref> In 2020, a pair of [[Western cattle egret|cattle egrets]] successfully bred at the site, the first time the species had successfully bred in Norfolk.<ref>{{cite web |title=Western Cattle Egret breeds in Norfolk for first time |url=https://www.birdguides.com/news/western-cattle-egret-breeds-in-norfolk-for-first-time/ |publisher=Birdguides |access-date=13 July 2020}}</ref> The pines may occasionally have nesting [[Eurasian siskin|siskins]] or [[common crossbill]]s, and [[parrot crossbill]]s bred in 1984 and 1985.<ref name = harrup/>

Holkham's north-facing coastal location can attract large numbers of migrating birds in autumn if the weather conditions are right,<ref>Elkins (1988) pp. 136–137.</ref><ref>Newton (2010) pp. 97–98.</ref> especially with north to north-east wind.<ref name = harrup/> The common species may be accompanied by a [[wryneck]], [[red-backed shrike]] or [[greenish warbler]] in August, with [[goldcrest]]s, [[thrush (bird)|thrushes]] and [[finch]]es later in the season, and perhaps [[red-breasted flycatcher]]s and [[yellow-browed warbler]]s. [[vagrancy (biology)|Vagrant]] rarities such as [[Pallas's leaf warbler|Pallas's]], [[Radde's warbler|Radde's]] or [[dusky warbler]]s may occur;<ref name = harrup/><ref>Newton (2010) p. 50.</ref> a [[red-breasted nuthatch]] in 1989 was the first, and, as of 2019, the only individual of its species to be recorded in the UK.<ref name= BB1995>{{cite journal | last= Aley | first= Jean |author2=Aley, Roy | year= 1995 | title= Red-breasted Nuthatch in Norfolk: new to Britain and Ireland | journal= British Birds | volume= 88 | issue = 3 | pages= 150–153 | url = http://www.britishbirds.co.uk/search?model=pdf&id=7786 }}</ref>

=== Other animals and plants ===

[[European hare|Brown hares]] and [[European otter]]s are found all along the north Norfolk coast, but [[red squirrel]]s disappeared from the Holkham pines by 1981.<ref name =encitation/> The rare [[natterjack toad]] breeds at Holkham,<ref name= holkham>Natural England (2009) pp. 7–15.</ref> one of only two sites along this coast,<ref name =encitation/> although the [[common frog]], [[common toad]] and [[viviparous lizard|common lizard]] are widespread in appropriate habitats.<ref name= dear>Norfolk Wildlife Trust (2005) pp. 12–15.</ref>
[[File:Saltmarsh at Holkham Bay - geograph.org.uk - 793497.jpg|thumb|alt= marsh with pine trees in the background|The pines and salt marsh protect and stabilise the dunes.|left]]
The [[green hairstreak]], [[purple hairstreak]], [[Polygonia c-album|comma]], [[hummingbird hawk-moth]], [[Hemaris fuciformis|broad-bordered bee hawk-moth]] and [[ghost moth]] are sometimes seen in the woods with the common butterfly and moth species, and a [[Colias croceus|clouded yellow]] or [[Nymphalis antiopa|Camberwell beauty]] may also occur in some years.<ref name = holkpines/> [[Grayling (butterfly)|Grayling]], [[small heath (butterfly)|small heath]] and [[common blue]] butterflies can be found in the dunes,<ref name = holhdunes/> where there is also a large [[Euroleon nostras|antlion]] colony, making Holkham one of only two locations for this predatory insect in the UK.<ref name=antlion>{{cite web| title= Thriving colonies of antlions discovered in Norfolk nature reserve| work= News| date= 17 October 2011| url= http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/about_us/news/2011/171011.aspx| publisher= Natural England| url-status=dead| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120108095802/http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/about_us/news/2011/171011.aspx| archive-date= 8 January 2012}} Retrieved 7 September 2012.</ref> [[Dragonfly|Dragonflies]] include the [[migrant hawker]], [[southern hawker]] and [[ruddy darter]].<ref name=holkpines>{{cite web | title= Pinewoods and scrub | work= Holkham National Nature Reserve | url= http://www.holkham.co.uk/naturereserve/pinewoodsandscrub.html | publisher= Holkham Estate | url-status=dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121215100304/http://www.holkham.co.uk/naturereserve/pinewoodsandscrub.html | archive-date= 2012-12-15 }} Retrieved 21 August 2012.</ref>

On exposed parts of the coast, the mud and sands are scoured by the tides, and have no vegetation except possibly [[algae]] or [[Zostera marina|eelgrass]], but where the shoreline is more protected, internationally important salt marshes can form, with several uncommon species. The salt marsh contains [[Salicornia|glassworts]] and [[Suaeda maritima|annual seablite]] in the most exposed regions,<ref name= holkham/> with a [[ecological succession|succession]] of plants following on as the marsh becomes more established: first [[Aster tripolium|sea aster]], then mainly [[Limonium binervosum|sea lavender]], with [[Halimione portulacoides|sea purslane]] in the creeks and smaller areas of [[Plantago maritima|sea plantain]] and other common marsh plants.<ref name = encitation/> [[Suaeda vera|Scrubby sea-blite]] and [[Limonium bellidifolium|matted sea lavender]] are characteristic plants of the drier upper salt marsh here, although they are uncommon in the UK away from the Norfolk coast.<ref name= holkham/>

Grasses such as [[Agropyron pungens|sea couch grass]] and [[Puccinellia maritima|sea poa grass]] are important in the driest areas of the marshes, and on the coastal dunes, where [[Ammophila arenaria|marram grass]], [[Elymus farctus|sand couch-grass]], [[Leymus arenarius|lyme-grass]] and [[Festuca rubra|red fescue]] help to bind the sand. [[Eryngium maritimum|Sea holly]] and [[Carex arenaria|sand sedge]] are other specialists of this arid habitat, and [[Petalophyllum ralfsii|petalwort]] is a nationally rare [[bryophyte]] found on damper dunes.<ref name=nbp>{{cite web |title=Coastal Sand Dunes – Habitat Action Plan |url=http://www.norfolkbiodiversity.org/actionplans/habitatactionplans/coastalsanddunes.aspx |publisher=Norfolk Biodiversity Partnership |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017153216/http://www.norfolkbiodiversity.org/actionplans/habitatactionplans/coastalsanddunes.aspx |archive-date=2012-10-17 |url-status=dead |access-date=2012-09-05 }} Retrieved 22 August 2012.</ref> [[Lotus corniculatus|Bird's-foot trefoil]], [[pyramidal orchid]],<ref name = encitation/> [[Ophrys apifera|bee orchid]], [[Centaurium pulchellum|lesser centaury]] and [[Carlina|carline thistle]] flower on the more stable dunes,<ref name=holhdunes>{{cite web | title= Dunes | work= Holkham National Nature Reserve | url= http://www.holkham.co.uk/naturereserve/dunes.html | publisher= Holkham Estate | url-status=dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121215095447/http://www.holkham.co.uk/naturereserve/dunes.html | archive-date= 2012-12-15 }} Retrieved 18 August 2012.</ref> where the rare [[Helichrysum luteoalbum|Jersey cudweed]] and [[Corynephorus canescens|grey hair-grass]] are also found.<ref name = encitation/> The narrow {{convert|5|km|mi|abbr=on|adj=on}} belt of pines shelters [[Goodyera repens|creeping lady's tresses]] and [[Monotropa hypopitys|yellow bird's nest]].<ref name= holkham/><ref name = harrup>Harrup & Redman (2010) pp. 242–245</ref>