Editing History of Sumer (section)

==History==
=== Pre- and protohistory ===
The [[Prehistory|pre-]] and [[protohistory]] of southern Mesopotamia is divided into the [[Ubaid period|Ubaid]] (c. 6500–3800 BC), [[Uruk period|Uruk]]  (c. 4000 to 3100 BC) and [[Jemdet Nasr period|Jemdet Nasr]] (c. 3100 to 2900 BC) periods. There is scholarly disagreement as to when the Sumerian presence began in the region, although it is generally assumed that the Sumerian language was used in southern Mesopotamia by the late Uruk period. Some scholars believe that the Sumerians migrated to the area as late as c. 3600 BC, whereas others believe that the Sumerian presence goes back to the early Ubaid period or even prior to that.<ref>{{cite book|first1=William H. Jr.|last1=Stiebing|title=Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DoyTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA40|publisher=Routledge|date=2016|isbn=978-1-315-51116-0|pages=39–40|access-date=2023-07-27|archive-date=2023-07-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230727002749/https://books.google.com/books?id=DoyTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA40|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Early Dynastic period===
{{main|Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)}}
The Early Dynastic Period began after a cultural break with the preceding Jemdet Nasr period that has been radio-carbon dated to about 2900 BC at the beginning of the Early Dynastic I Period. No inscriptions have yet been found verifying any names of kings that can be associated with the Early Dynastic I period. The ED I period is distinguished from the ED II period by the narrow cylinder seals of the ED I period and the broader wider ED II seals engraved with banquet scenes or animal-contest scenes.<ref>Georges Roux, ''Ancient Iraq'', page 129</ref> The Early Dynastic II period is when [[Gilgamesh]], the famous king of Uruk, is believed to have reigned.<ref>Georges Roux, ''Ancient Iraq'', p. 502</ref>  Texts from the ED II period are not yet understood.  Later inscriptions have been found bearing some Early Dynastic II names from the [[Sumerian King List]]. The Early Dynastic IIIa period, also known as the Fara period, is when [[syllabary|syllabic]] writing began. Accounting records and an undeciphered [[logograph]]ic script existed before the Fara Period, but the full flow of human speech was first recorded about 2600 BC at the beginning of the Fara Period. The Early Dynastic IIIb period is also known as the Pre-Sargonic period.

[[Hegemony]], which came to be conferred by the Nippur priesthood, alternated among a number of competing dynasties, hailing from Sumerian city-states traditionally including Kish, Uruk, Ur, [[Adab (city)|Adab]] and [[Akshak]], as well as some from outside of southern Mesopotamia, such as [[Awan dynasty|Awan]], [[Hamazi]], and [[Mari, Syria|Mari]], until the [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]]ians, under [[Sargon of Akkad]], overtook the area.

====First Dynasty of Kish====
[[File:Tableta con trillo.png|thumb|The [[Kish tablet]], a limestone tablet from Kish with pictographic, early [[cuneiform]], writing (ca. 3350–3200 BC). Possibly the earliest known example of writing. [[Ashmolean Museum]].]]
{{see|Kish (Sumer)}}
The earliest Dynastic name on the list known from other legendary sources is [[Etana]], whom it calls "the shepherd, who ascended to heaven and consolidated all the foreign countries". He was estimated by Roux<ref>Roux, Georges 1971, "Ancient Iraq", Penguin, Harmondsworth.</ref> to have lived approximately 3000 BC. Among the 11 kings who followed, a number of [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] names are recorded, suggesting that these people made up a sizable proportion of the population of this northern city. The earliest monarch on the list whose historical existence has been independently attested through archaeological inscription is [[En-me-barage-si]] of Kish (c. 2600 BC), said to have defeated [[Elam]] and built the temple of [[Enlil]] in Nippur. Enmebaragesi's successor, [[Aga (King of Sumer)|Aga]], is said to have fought with Gilgamesh of Uruk, the fifth king of that city. From this time, for a period Uruk seems to have had some kind of hegemony in Sumer. This illustrates a weakness of the Sumerian king list, as contemporaries are often placed in successive dynasties, making reconstruction difficult.

====First Dynasty of Uruk====
[[File:Rolzegel.JPG|thumb|Cylinder seal impression from Uruk, showing a "king-priest" in brimmed hat and long coat feeding the herd of goddess [[Inanna]], symbolized by two rams, framed by reed bundles as on the [[Uruk Vase]]. Late Uruk period, 3300–3000 BC. [[Pergamon Museum]]/ [[Vorderasiatisches Museum]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus |date=2003 |publisher= Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn= 978-1-58839043-1 |page= [https://archive.org/details/artoffirstcities0000unse/page/481 481] |url= https://archive.org/details/artoffirstcities0000unse |url-access= registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin |url= http://repository.edition-topoi.org/collection/VMRS/single/1769/2 |website= Repository |publisher= Edition Topoi |access-date= 2020-03-02 |archive-date= 2019-04-02 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190402122509/http://repository.edition-topoi.org/collection/VMRS/single/1769/2 |url-status= live }}</ref>]]
{{see|Uruk}}
[[Mesh-ki-ang-gasher]] is listed as the first King of Uruk. He was followed by [[Enmerkar]].<ref>Identified by [[David Rohl]] with [[Nimrod (king)|Nimrod]] the Hunter, mentioned in the Bible as founding Erech</ref> The epic ''[[Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi?text=t.1.8.2.3|title=The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature|website=ETCSL|publisher=Oxford|place=UK|access-date=23 April 2018|archive-date=26 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926233654/http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi?text=t.1.8.2.3|url-status=live}}</ref> tells of his voyage by river to [[Aratta]], a mountainous, mineral-rich country up-river from Sumer. He was followed by [[Lugalbanda]], also known from fragmentary legends, and then by [[Dumuzid, the Fisherman]]. The most famous monarch of this dynasty was Dumuzid's successor Gilgamesh, hero of the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', where he is called Lugalbanda's son. Ancient, fragmentary copies of this text have been discovered in locations as far apart as [[Hattusas]] in Anatolia, [[Tel Megiddo|Megiddo]] in Israel, and [[Tell el Amarna]] in Egypt.

====First Dynasty of Ur====
{{main|First Dynasty of Ur}}
[[File:Golden helmet of Meskalamdug in the British Museum.jpg|thumb|Gold helmet of [[Meskalamdug]], ruler of the [[First Dynasty of Ur]], 26th century BCE.]]
This dynasty is dated to the 26th century BC.<ref name="CAH">{{cite book |title=The Cambridge Ancient History |date=1970 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521070515 |page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgeancient0001unse/page/228 228] |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeancient0001unse |url-access=registration |language=en}}</ref> [[Meskalamdug]] is the first archaeologically recorded king (''Lugal'' from ''lu''=man, ''gal''=big) of the city of Ur. He was succeeded by his son [[Akalamdug]], and Akalamdug by his son Mesh-Ane-pada. [[Mesh-Ane-pada]] is the first king of Ur listed on the king list, and it says he defeated [[Lugalkildu]] of Uruk. He also seems to have subjected Kish, thereafter assuming the title "King of Kish" for himself. This title would be used by many kings of the preeminent dynasties for some time afterward. King [[Mesilim]] of Kish is known from inscriptions from Lagash and Adab stating that he built temples in those cities, where he seems to have held some influence. He is also mentioned in some of the earliest monuments from Lagash as arbitrating a border dispute between [[Lugal-sha-engur]], ''[[Ensí|ensi]]'' (high priest or governor) of Lagash, and the ''ensi'' of their main rival, the neighbouring town of [[Umma]]. Mesilim's placement before, during, or after the reign of Mesannepada in Ur is uncertain, owing to the lack of other synchronous names in the inscriptions, and his absence from the king list.

====Dynasty of Awan====
{{Main|Awan dynasty}}
[[File:Ur-Nanshe_King_of_Lagash_in_the_limestone_votive_relief_of_Ur-Nanshe.jpg|thumb|A Sumerian relief of [[Ur-Nanshe]], king of [[Lagash]] circa 2500 BCE.]]
This dynasty is dated to the 26th century BC, about the same time as Elam is also mentioned clearly.<ref>D. T. Potts, [https://books.google.com/books?id=WE62CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA79 ''The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123080707/https://books.google.ca/books?id=WE62CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA79 |date=2022-11-23 }} Cambridge World Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, 2015 {{ISBN|1107094690}} p79</ref> According to the Sumerian king list, Elam, Sumer's neighbor to the east, held the kingship in Sumer for a brief period, based in the city of Awan.

====Second Dynasty of Uruk====

{{see|Uruk}}

[[Enshakushanna]] was a king of Uruk in the later 3rd millennium BC who is named on the Sumerian king list, which states his reign to have been 60 years. He was succeeded in Uruk by Lugal-kinishe-dudu, but the hegemony seems to have passed briefly to Eannatum of Lagash.

====Empire of Lugal-Ane-mundu of Adab====

Following this period, the region of Mesopotamia seems to have come under the sway of a Sumerian conqueror from Adab, [[Lugal-Ane-mundu]], ruling over Uruk, Ur, and Lagash. According to inscriptions, he ruled from the [[Persian Gulf]] to the [[Mediterranean]], and up to the [[Zagros Mountains]], including Elam.<ref>Samuel Kramer, ''The Sumerians'', 51-52.</ref> However, his empire fell apart with his death; the king-list indicates that Mari in Upper Mesopotamia was the next city to hold the hegemony.

====Kug-Bau and the Third Dynasty of Kish====
The Third Dynasty of Kish, represented solely by [[Kug-Bau]] or Kubaba, is unique in the fact that she was the only woman named on the king-list to reign as "king". It adds that she had been a tavern keeper before overthrowing the hegemony of Mari and becoming monarch. In later centuries she was worshipped as a minor goddess, particularly at [[Carchemish]], achieving some status in the [[Hurrian]] and [[Hittites]] periods. In the post-Hittite [[Phrygia]]n period she was called Kubele (Latin [[Cybele]]), Great Mother of the Gods.{{Citation needed|date=September 2020}}

====Dynasty of Akshak====
[[Akshak]] too achieved independence with a line of rulers extending from [[Puzur-Nirah]], [[Ishu-Il]], and Shu-Suen, son of Ishu-Il, before being defeated by the rulers in the Fourth Dynasty of Kish.

====First Dynasty of Lagash====

{{see|Lagash}}

[[File:Relief Ur-Nanshe Louvre AO2344.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ur-Nanshe]]: top, creating the foundation for a shrine; bottom, presiding over its dedication ([[Louvre]])]]

[[File:Stele of Vultures detail 01-transparent.png|right|thumb|Fragment of [[Eannatum]]'s [[Stele of the Vultures]] ([[Louvre]])]]

This dynasty is dated to the 25th century BC.{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}} [[En-hegal]] is recorded as the first known ruler of Lagash, being tributary to Uruk. His successor [[Lugal-sha-engur]] was similarly tributary to [[Mesilim]]. Following the hegemony of [[Mesannepada]] of Ur, [[Ur-Nanshe]] succeeded [[Lugal-sha-engur]] as the new high priest of Lagash and achieved independence, making himself king. He defeated Ur and captured the king of Umma, Pabilgaltuk. In the ruins of a building attached by him to the temple of [[Ningirsu]], [[terracotta]] ''[[bas relief]]s'' of the king and his sons have been found, as well as onyx plates and lions' heads in onyx reminiscent of [[Art of ancient Egypt|Egypt]]ian work.<ref name=EB1911>{{EB1911 |inline=y |wstitle=Babylonia and Assyria |volume=3 |pages=99–112 |first1=Archibald Henry |last1=Sayce |author1-link=Archibald Sayce |first2=Leonard William |last2=King |author2-link=Leonard William King |first3=Morris  |last3=Jastrow |author3-link=Morris Jastrow Jr.}}</ref> One inscription states that ships of [[Dilmun]] (Bahrain) brought him wood as tribute from foreign lands. He was succeeded by his son [[Akurgal]].

[[Eannatum]], grandson of Ur-Nanshe, made himself master of the whole of the district of Sumer, together with the cities of Uruk (ruled by Enshakushana), Ur, Nippur, Akshak, and Larsa.<ref name=EB1911/> He also annexed the kingdom of Kish; however, it recovered its independence after his death.<ref name=EB1911/> Umma was made tributary—a certain amount of grain being levied upon each person in it, that had to be paid into the treasury of the goddess Nina and the god [[Ningirsu]].<ref name=EB1911/> Eannatum's campaigns extended beyond the confines of Sumer, and he overran a part of Elam, took the city of [[Az (city)|Az]] on the [[Persian Gulf]], and exacted tribute as far as [[Mari, Syria|Mari]]; however many of the realms he conquered were often in revolt. During his reign, temples and palaces were repaired or erected at Lagash and elsewhere; the town of Nina{{Citation needed|date=March 2008}}—that probably gave its name to the later [[Niniveh]]—was rebuilt, and canals and reservoirs were excavated. Eannatum was succeeded by his brother, [[En-anna-tum I]]. During his rule, Umma once more asserted independence under [[Ur-Lumma]], who attacked Lagash unsuccessfully. Ur-Lumma was replaced by a priest-king, [[Il, king of Umma|Illi]], who also attacked Lagash.

His son and successor [[Entemena]] restored the prestige of Lagash.<ref name=EB1911/> Illi of Umma was subdued, with the help of his ally [[Lugal-kinishe-dudu]] or Lugal-ure of Uruk, successor to Enshakushana and also on the king-list. Lugal-kinishe-dudu seems to have been the prominent figure at the time, since he also claimed to rule Kish and Ur. A silver vase dedicated by Entemena to his god is now in the Louvre.<ref name=EB1911/> A frieze of lions devouring ibexes and deer, incised with great artistic skill, runs round the neck, while the eagle crest of Lagash adorns the globular part. The vase is a proof of the high degree of excellence to which the goldsmith's art had already attained.<ref name=EB1911/> A vase of [[calcite]], also dedicated by Entemena, has been found at Nippur.<ref name=EB1911/> After Entemena, a series of weak, corrupt priest-kings is attested for Lagash. The last of these, [[Urukagina]], was known for his judicial, social, and economic reforms, and his may well be the first legal code known to have existed.

====Empire of Lugal-zage-si of Uruk====

Urukagina (c. 2359–2335 BC [[short chronology]]) was overthrown and his city Lagash captured by [[Lugal-zage-si]], the high priest of Umma. Lugal-zage-si also took Uruk and Ur, and made Uruk his capital. In a long inscription that he made engraved on hundreds of stone vases dedicated to [[Enlil]] of Nippur, he boasts that his kingdom extended "from the Lower Sea ([[Persian Gulf]]), along the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]], to the Upper Sea" or Mediterranean.<ref name= EB1911/> His empire was overthrown by [[Sargon of Akkad]].

===Akkadian Empire===
{{Main article|Akkadian Empire}}
[[File:Victory stele of Naram Sin 9066.jpg|right|thumb|Victory stele of [[Naram-Sin of Akkad|Naram-Sin]] at the [[Louvre]], Paris.]]The Akkadian period lasted c. 2334–2147 BC ([[middle chronology]]). The following is a list of known kings of this period:

{|class=wikitable
|-
| [[Sargon of Akkad|Sargon]] ||c. 2334–2279 BC ||
|-
| [[Rimush]] ||c. 2278–2270 BC || younger son of Sargon
|-
| [[Man-ishtishu]] ||c. 2269–2255 BC || elder son of Sargon
|-
|[[Naram-Sin of Akkad|Naram-Sin]]||c. 2254–2218 BC || son of Man-ishtishu
|-
| [[Shar-kali-sharri]] ||c. 2217–2193 BC || son of Naram-Suen
|-
| [[Irgigi]] || ||
|-
| [[Imi]] || ||
|-
| [[Nanum (king)|Nanum]] || ||
|-
| [[Elulu]] || ||
|-
| [[Dudu (king)|Dudu]] ||c. 2189–2168 BC ||
|-
| [[Shu-Durul]] ||c. 2168–2147 BC || Akkad defeated by the Gutians
|}

===Gutian period===

{{further|Gutian dynasty of Sumer}}

Following the fall of Sargon's Empire to the [[Gutian people|Gutians]], a brief "Dark Ages" ensued. This period lasted c. 2141–2050 BC (short chronology).

===Second Dynasty of Lagash===

{{further|Lagash}}
[[Image:Ur-Ningirsu ruler of Lagash circa 2110 BCE.jpg |thumb|Statue of [[Ur-Ningirsu]], prince of Lagash, circa 2110 BCE. [[Louvre Museum]].]]
This period lasted c. 2260–2110 BC.{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}}
<!-- unsure whether these dates are Short Chronology -->
{|class=wikitable
|-
| [[Ki-Ku-Id]]|| ||
|-
| [[Engilsa]]|| ||
|-
| [[Ur-A]]|| ||
|-
| [[Lugalushumgal]]|| ||
|-
| [[Puzer-Mama]]|| c. 2200 BC || contemporary of [[Shar-kali-sharri]] of [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]]
|-
| [[Ur-Utu]]|| ||
|-
| [[Ur-Mama]]|| ||
|-
| [[Lu-Baba]]|| ||
|-
| [[Lugula]]|| ||
|-
| [[Kaku (king)|Kaku]] or Kakug || ||
|-
| [[Ur-Bau]] or [[Ur-baba]] || c. 2093–2080 BC (short) ||
|-
| [[Gudea]]|| c. 2080–2060 BC ||  son-in-law of Ur-baba
|-
| [[Ur-Ningirsu]]|| c. 2060–2055 BC || son of Gudea
|-
| [[Pirigme]] or [[Ugme]] || c. 2055–2053 BC ||
|-
| [[Ur-gar]]|| c. 2053–2049 BC ||
|-
| [[Nammahani]]|| c. 2049–2046 BC || grandson of Kaku, defeated by Ur-Nammu
|}

===Fifth Dynasty of Uruk===

{{further|Uruk}}

This dynasty lasted between c. 2055–2048 BC [[short chronology]]. The Gutians were ultimately driven out by the Sumerians under [[Utu-hegal]], the only king of this dynasty, who in turn was defeated by [[Ur-Nammu]] of Ur.

===Third Dynasty of Ur===
{{Main article|Third Dynasty of Ur}}
[[File:King Ur-Nammu.jpg|thumb|Enthroned King [[Ur-Nammu]], founder of the [[Third Dynasty of Ur]], on a cylinder seal.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hash-hamer Cylinder seal of Ur-Nammu |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=368841&partId=1 |website=British Museum |access-date=2019-03-31 |archive-date=2019-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328104204/https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=368841&partId=1 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
The [[Third Dynasty of Ur]] is dated to c. 2047–1940 BC [[short chronology]]. [[Ur-Nammu]] of Ur defeated Utu-hegal of Uruk and founded the Third Dynasty of Ur. Although the [[Sumerian language]] ("''Emegir''") was again made official, Sumerian identity was already in decline, as the population became continually absorbed into the Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) population.<ref name="Deutscher">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XFwUxmCdG94C|title=Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation|publisher=[[Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press US]]|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19-953222-3|pages=20–21|author=Deutscher, Guy|author-link=Guy Deutscher (linguist)|access-date=2020-10-06|archive-date=2023-04-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418050423/https://books.google.com/books?id=XFwUxmCdG94C|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="woods">Woods C. 2006 "Bilingualism, Scribal Learning, and the Death of Sumerian". In S. L. Sanders (ed) ''Margins of Writing, Origins of Culture'': 91–120 Chicago [http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/OIS2.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429121058/http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/OIS2.pdf|date=2013-04-29}}</ref>

After the Ur III dynasty was destroyed by the Elamites in 2004 BC, a fierce rivalry developed between the city-states of Larsa, more under Elamite than Sumerian influence, and [[Isin]], that was more [[Amorite]] (as the Western Semitic nomads were called). Archaeologically, the fall of the Ur III dynasty corresponds to the beginning of the [[Middle Bronze Age]]. The Semites ended up prevailing in Mesopotamia by the time of [[Hammurabi]] of [[Babylon]], who founded the [[Babylonia]]n Empire, and the language and name of Sumer gradually passed into the realm of antiquarian scholars. Nevertheless, Sumerian influence on Babylonia, and all subsequent cultures in the region, was undeniably great.

During the third millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread [[wikt:bilingualism|bilingualism]].<ref name="Deutscher"/> The influence of [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] on [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] (and vice versa) is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence.<ref name="Deutscher"/> This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the third millennium as a ''[[sprachbund]]''.<ref name= "Deutscher"/>

[[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language of [[Mesopotamia]] somewhere around the turn of the third and the second millennium BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate),<ref name="woods"/> but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary and scientific language in Mesopotamia until the first century AD.