Editing History of Jamaica (section)

== British rule (1655–1962) ==
{{Main|English Jamaica}}

=== 17th century ===
====English conquest====
{{Main|Invasion of Jamaica}}
[[File:Old Port Royal - Project Gutenberg eText 19396.png|thumb|right|An illustration of pre-1692 Port Royal]]

In late 1654, English leader [[Oliver Cromwell]] launched the ''Western Design'' armada against [[Spanish West Indies|Spain's colonies in the Caribbean]]. In April 1655, [[Robert Venables|General Robert Venables]] led the armada in an attack on Spain's fort at [[Santo Domingo]], [[Hispaniola]]. After the Spanish repelled this poorly executed attack, the English force then sailed for Jamaica, the only Spanish West Indies island that did not have new defensive works. In May 1655, around 7,000 English soldiers landed near Jamaica's capital, named [[Spanish Town]] and soon overwhelmed the small number of Spanish troops (at the time, Jamaica's entire population only numbered around 2,500).<ref>{{cite book |last=Parker |first=Matthew |date=2011 |title=The Sugar Barons}}{{ISBN?}}{{page needed|date=February 2025}}</ref>

Spain never recaptured Jamaica, losing the [[Battle of Ocho Rios (1657)|Battle of Ocho Rios]] in 1657 and the [[Battle of Rio Nuevo (1658)|Battle of Rio Nuevo]] in 1658. In 1660, a group of maroons, under the leadership of [[Juan de Bolas]], broke their alliance with the Spanish and allied themselves with the English, which served as a turning point in the English domination of the island.<ref>C.V. Black, ''History of Jamaica'' (London: Collins, 1975), p. 54.</ref> For England, Jamaica was to be the "dagger pointed at the heart of the Spanish Empire," but in fact, it was a possession of little economic value then.{{sfn|Coward|2002|p=134}} England gained formal possession of Jamaica from [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] in 1670 through the [[Treaty of Madrid (1670)|Treaty of Madrid]]. Removing the pressing need for constant defence against a Spanish attack, this change served as an incentive to [[Plantation economy|planting]].

====British colonization====
[[File:Jamaica1671ogilby.jpg|thumb|English map from the 1600s<ref>{{cite web|url=http://prestwidge.com/river/jamaica1671ogilby.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=2015-05-21 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222101724/http://prestwidge.com/river/jamaica1671ogilby.html |archive-date=2012-02-22 }}</ref>]]
Cromwell increased the island's European population by sending indentured servants and prisoners to Jamaica. Due to Irish emigration resulting from the wars in Ireland at this time two-thirds of this 17th-century European population was Irish. But [[tropical diseases]] kept the number of Europeans under 10,000 until about 1740. Although the African slave population in the 1670s and 1680s never exceeded 10,000, by the end of the 17th century [[Atlantic slave trade|imports]] of [[slave]]s increased the [[Jamaicans of African ancestry|black population]] to at least five times greater than the white population. Thereafter, Jamaica's African population did not increase significantly in number until well into the 18th century, in part because ships coming from the west coast of [[Africa]] preferred to unload at the islands of the Eastern Caribbean.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}} At the beginning of the 18th century, the number of slaves in Jamaica did not exceed 45,000, but by 1800 it had increased to over 300,000.

====Maroons====
{{Main|Jamaican Maroons#History}}

When the English captured [[Jamaica]] in 1655, the Spanish colonists fled, leaving a large number of African slaves. These former Spanish slaves organised under the leadership of rival captains [[Juan de Serras]] and [[Juan de Bolas]]. These [[Jamaican Maroons]] intermarried with the [[Arawak]] people, and established distinct independent communities in the mountainous interior of Jamaica. They survived by subsistence farming and periodic raids of plantations. Over time, the Maroons came to control large areas of the Jamaican interior.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sainsbury|first1=W. Noel|title=America and West Indies|journal=Calendar of State Papers Colonial, America and West Indies|volume=1, 5|issue=1574–1660, 1661–1668}}</ref>

In the second half of the seventeenth century, de Serras fought regular campaigns against English colonial forces, even attacking the capital of [[Spanish Town]], and he was never defeated by the English. Throughout the seventeenth century, and in the first few decades of the eighteenth century, Maroon forces frequently defeated the British in small-scale skirmishes. The British colonial authorities dispatched numerous expeditions in an attempt to subdue them, but the Maroons successfully fought a guerrilla campaign against the British in the mountainous interior, and forced the British government to seek peace terms to end the expensive conflict.<ref>Mavis Campbell, ''The Maroons of Jamaica 1655–1796: a History of Resistance, Collaboration & Betrayal'' (Massachusetts: Bergin & Garvey, 1988), pp. 14–35.</ref>

In the early eighteenth century, English-speaking escaped [[Asante people|Ashanti]] slaves were at the forefront of the Maroon fighting against the British.

====The House of Assembly====
{{Main|House of Assembly of Jamaica}}
Beginning with the [[House of Stuart|Stuart monarchy]]'s appointment of a civil [[Governor of Jamaica|governor to Jamaica]] in 1661, political patterns were established that lasted well into the 20th century. The second governor, [[Thomas Hickman-Windsor, 1st Earl of Plymouth|Lord Windsor]], brought with him in 1662 a proclamation from the king giving Jamaica's non-slave populace the same rights as those of English citizens, including the right to make their own laws. Although he spent only ten weeks in Jamaica, Lord Windsor laid the foundations of a governing system that was to last for two centuries – a crown-appointed governor acting with the advice of a nominated council in the legislature. The legislature consisted of the governor and an elected but highly unrepresentative [[House of Assembly of Jamaica|House of Assembly]]. For years, the planter-dominated Assembly was in continual conflict with the various governors and the Stuart kings; there were also contentious factions within the assembly itself. For much of the 1670s and 1680s, Charles II and [[James II of England|James II]] and the assembly feuded over such matters as the purchase of slaves from ships not run by the royal English trading company. The last Stuart governor, [[Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of Albemarle]], who was more interested in [[treasure hunting]] than in planting, turned the planter oligarchy out of office. After the duke's death in 1688, the planters, who had fled Jamaica to London, succeeded in lobbying James II to order a return to the pre-Albemarle political arrangement (the local control of Jamaican planters belonging to the assembly).

====Jamaica's pirates====
{{Main|Port Royal|1692 Jamaica earthquake}}

Following the 1655 conquest, Spain repeatedly attempted to recapture Jamaica. In response, in 1657, Governor [[Edward D'Oyley]] invited the [[Brethren of the Coast]] to come to Port Royal and make it their home port. The Brethren was made up of a group of pirates who were descendants of cattle-hunting ''boucaniers'' (later Anglicised to buccaneers), who had turned to piracy after being robbed by the Spanish (and subsequently thrown out of Hispaniola).<ref name="autogenerated2006">Donny L. Hamilton, "Pirates and Merchants: Port Royal, Jamaica," in ''X Marks the Spot: The Archaeology of Piracy,'' ed. Russell K. Skowronek and Charles R. Ewen, 13–30 (Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida, 2006).</ref> These pirates concentrated their attacks on Spanish shipping, whose interests were considered the major threat to the town. These pirates later became legal English [[privateers]] who were given [[letters of marque]] by Jamaica's governor. Around the same time that pirates were invited to Port Royal, England launched a series of attacks against Spanish shipping vessels and coastal towns. By sending the newly appointed privateers after Spanish ships and settlements, England had successfully set up a system of defense for Port Royal.<ref name="autogenerated2006"/> Jamaica became a haven of privateers, buccaneers, and occasionally outright pirates: [[Christopher Myngs]], [[Edward Mansvelt]], and most famously, [[Henry Morgan]].

England gained formal possession of Jamaica from [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] in 1670 through the [[Treaty of Madrid (1670)|Treaty of Madrid]]. Removing the pressing need for constant defense against a Spanish attack, this change served as an incentive to [[Plantation economy|planting]]. This settlement also improved the supply of slaves and resulted in more protection, including military support, for the planters against foreign competition. As a result, the sugar monoculture and slave-worked plantation society spread across Jamaica throughout the 18th century, decreasing Jamaica's dependence on privateers for protection and funds.

However, the English colonial authorities continued to have difficulties suppressing the Spanish Maroons, who made their homes in the mountainous interior and mounted periodic raids on estates and towns, such as [[Spanish Town]]. The Karmahaly Maroons, led by Juan de Serras, continued to stay in the forested mountains, and periodically fought the English. In the 1670s and 1680s, in his capacity as an owner of a large slave plantation, Morgan led three campaigns against the Jamaican Maroons of Juan de Serras. Morgan achieved some success against the Maroons, who withdrew further into the Blue Mountains, where they were able to stay out of the reach of Morgan and his forces.<ref>Mavis Campbell, ''The Maroons of Jamaica 1655–1796: a History of Resistance, Collaboration & Betrayal'' (Massachusetts: Bergin & Garvey, 1988), pp. 14–15, 23, 32–33.</ref>

Another blow to Jamaica's partnership with privateers was the violent [[1692 Jamaica earthquake|earthquake]] which destroyed much of Port Royal on 7 June 1692. Two-thirds of the town sank into the sea immediately after the main shock.<ref name="USGS">{{cite web|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/events/1692_06_07.php|title=Historic Earthquakes: Jamaica 1692 June 07 UTC|last=USGS|date=October 21, 2009|access-date=6 December 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120408181146/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/events/1692_06_07.php|archive-date=8 April 2012}}</ref> After the earthquake, the town was partially rebuilt but the colonial government was relocated to Spanish Town, which had been the capital under [[Colony of Santiago|Spanish rule]]. Port Royal was further devastated by a fire in 1703 and a [[hurricane]] in 1722. Most of the sea trade moved to Kingston. By the late 18th century, Port Royal was largely abandoned.<ref name="Tortello">{{cite web|url=http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/pages/history/story001.html|title=1692:Earthquake of Port Royal|last=Tortello|first=Rebecca|access-date=22 December 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100309071447/http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/pages/history/story001.html|archive-date=9 March 2010}}</ref>

=== 18th century ===
====Jamaica's sugar boom====
[[File:Political Evolution of Central America and the Caribbean 1700 and on.gif|thumb|European colonies in the 18th-century Caribbean]]

In the mid-17th century, sugarcane was introduced to the [[British West Indies]] by the [[Dutch Republic|Dutch]],<ref>Nancy sharkey, [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE3DF1E31F932A25751C1A96E948260&sec=travel&pagewanted=print "A Barbados Synagogue Is Reborn"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208040909/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE3DF1E31F932A25751C1A96E948260&sec=travel&pagewanted=print |date=2009-02-08 }}, ''New York Times'', December 11, 1988</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.planetware.com/bridgetown/synagogue-bar-mi-syn.htm |title=Bridgetown synagogue |access-date=2015-05-12 |archive-date=2012-02-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205091826/http://www.planetware.com/bridgetown/synagogue-bar-mi-syn.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> from [[Brazil]]. Upon landing in Jamaica and other islands, they quickly urged local growers to change their main crops from [[cotton]] and [[tobacco]] to sugarcane. With depressed prices of cotton and tobacco, due mainly to stiff competition from the North American colonies, the farmers switched, leading to a boom in the Caribbean economies. Sugarcane was quickly snapped up by the [[Great Britain|British]], who used it in [[cake]]s and to sweeten [[tea]]. In the 18th century, sugar replaced [[Piracy in the Caribbean|piracy]] as Jamaica's main source of income. The sugar industry was labor-intensive and the British brought hundreds of thousands of enslaved Africans to Jamaica. By 1832, the median-size plantation in Jamaica had about 150 slaves, and nearly one of every four bondsmen lived on units that had at least 250 slaves.<ref>Robert William Fogel, "Slavery in the New World".  ''Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery'', pp. 21–23.</ref> In ''The Book of Night Women'', author Marlon James indicates that the ratio of slave owners to enslaved Africans is 1:33.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} James also depicts atrocities that slave owners subjected slaves to along with violent resistance from the slaves as well as numerous slaves who died in pursuit of freedom. After slavery was abolished in 1834, sugarcane [[Sugar plantations in the Caribbean|plantation]]s used a variety of forms of labour including workers imported from [[India]] under contracts of [[indenture]].

[[File:Cane holeing, in a Jamaican plantation - Creusement des sillons pour la canne à sucre, Jamaïque (cropped).jpg|thumb|Cane holeing, in a [[List of plantations in Jamaica|Jamaican plantation]], 19th century]]
The 18th century saw thousands of slaves imported into Jamaica into the now profitable sugar plantations. From 1740 to 1834, the estimated slave population continued to grow, reaching into the three hundred thousands by the end of the century.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Reid |first=Ahmed |date=July 13, 2015 |title=Sugar, Slavery and Productivity in Jamaica, 1750–1807 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/0144039X.2015.1061815 |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=159–82 |doi=10.1080/0144039X.2015.1061815 |via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> The sugar boom of Jamaica would change the dynamics of the slave market and the economics of the West Indies. Towards the end of the 18th century, Jamaica became the leader of sugar production for the British empire, producing up to 66% of the empire's sugar in 1796.<ref name=":2" /> The price of sugar would rise tremendously as the market for sugar in Great Britain was large, especially with the rich. From 1748 to 1755, the value of sugar exportations from Jamaica increased by nearly three times, going from £688,000 to £1,618,000 over the period.<ref name=":2" /> With the high demand for sugar out of Jamaica, the demand for slaves increased, leading to an increase in prices for slaves. From 1750 to 1807, the average price for a slave in the Caribbean would continue to steadily rise, reaching a high of £73 in 1805.<ref name=":2" /> Prices soared towards the dawn of the new century as a result of the plantation system in [[Saint-Domingue]] falling due to the [[Haitian Revolution|Haitian revolution]], putting more emphasis on Jamaica. Interestingly, the most efficient plantations employed fewer slaves per acre of land, which was observed in St. Andrews parish.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ryden |first=David |date=June 13, 2008 |title='One of the Fertilest Pleasentest Spotts': An analysis of the slave economy in Jamaica's St Andrew parish, 1753 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01440390008575294 |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=32–55 |doi=10.1080/01440390008575294 |via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> This created a higher demand for slaves that were efficient and in good health and shape, inflating the prices of those individuals and creating a quality over quantity dynamic. Internal markets would also develop, namely in [[Kingston, Jamaica|Kingston]], that allowed for plantations to reallocate labor and to disuade or break-up bonds and families made by slaves.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Burnard |first1=Trevor |last2=Morgan |first2=Kenneth |date=January 2001 |title=The Dynamics of the Slave Market and Slave Purchasing Patterns in Jamaica, 1655–1788 |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/2674424 |journal=The William and Mary Quarterly |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=205–28 |doi=10.2307/2674424 |jstor=2674424 |pmid=18751317 }}</ref>

With an increase in traffic of ships, sugar, and slaves, British merchants implemented the guarantee system, in which a merchant would be appointed to guarantee payment upon the delivery of the enslaved.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Morgan |first=Kenneth |date=January 21, 2016 |title=Merchant networks, the guarantee system and the British slave trade to Jamaica in the 1790s |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/0144039X.2015.1116305 |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=334–52 |doi=10.1080/0144039X.2015.1116305 |via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> This system served as a safety net for merchants as they had no influence over the price of the enslaved sold as age, weight, and vitality effected price range. With a safe system of commerce and the rising prices of sugar, the opportunity to make riches presented itself and attracted thousands of merchants and sailors looking to gain riches. Most of the slaves and their sales would be run through middlemen known as "Guinea Factors" who served as "the indispensable nexus between the transatlantic slave trade and the plantation complex," according to Radburn.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last=Radburn |first=Nicholas |date=April 3, 2015 |title=Guinea Factors, Slave Sales, and the Profits of the Transatlantic Slave Trade in Late Eighteenth-Century Jamaica: The Case of John Tailyour |url=https://doi.org/10.5309/willmaryquar.72.2.0243 |journal=The William and Mary Quarterly |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=243–86 |doi=10.5309/willmaryquar.72.2.0243 |via=Project MUSE}}</ref> These factors were instrumental in keeping the slave trade and economy running smoothly, as everything went in and out through them. Records of some of the factors and how many slaves they sold show just how much their work perpetuated the slave economy. From 1785 to 1796, five factors sold 78,258 slaves combined, with a Alexandre Lindo accounting for 25,706 of them a 17% share of the entire Jamaican slave trade.<ref name=":02" /> Such a large amount of slaves sold by one man in a little over ten years shows just how popular and profitable the slave market had become.

====First Maroon War====
{{Main|Jamaican Maroons|First Maroon War}}

Starting in the late seventeenth century, there were periodic skirmishes between the English colonial militia and the Windward Maroons, alongside occasional slave revolts. In 1673 one such revolt in St. Ann's Parish of 200 slaves created the separate group of Leeward Maroons. These Maroons united with a group of [[Malagasy people|Madagascars]] who had survived the shipwreck of a slave ship and formed their own maroon community in St. George's parish. Several more rebellions strengthened the numbers of this Leeward group. Notably, in 1690 a revolt at Sutton's plantation in Clarendon Parish of 400 slaves considerably strengthened the Leeward Maroons.<ref>{{harvnb|Patterson|1970|pp=256–58}}</ref> The Leeward Maroons inhabited "cockpits," caves, or deep ravines that were easily defended, even against troops with superior firepower. Such guerrilla warfare and the use of scouts who blew the abeng (the cow horn, which was used as a trumpet) to warn of approaching enemies allowed the Maroons to evade, thwart, frustrate, and defeat the British.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}

Early in the 18th century, the [[Jamaican Maroons|Maroons]] took a heavy toll on British [[Colonial troops|colonial militia]]men who sent against them in the interior, in what came to be known as the [[First Maroon War]]. In 1728, the British authorities sent [[Robert Hunter (colonial administrator)|Robert Hunter]] to assume the office of governor of Jamaica; Hunter's arrival led to an intensification of the conflict. However, despite increased numbers, the British colonial authorities were unable to defeat the Windward Maroons.<ref>Carey, Bev (1997), ''The Maroon Story: The Authentic and Original History of the Maroons in the History of Jamaica 1490–1880''. Kingston, Jamaica: Agouti Press, pp. 315–55</ref>

In 1739–40, the British government in Jamaica recognised that it could not defeat the Maroons, so they offered them treaties of peace instead. In 1739, the British, led by Governor [[Edward Trelawny (governor)|Edward Trelawny]], sued for peace with the Leeward Maroon leader, [[Cudjoe]], described by British planters as a short, almost dwarf-like man who for years fought skilfully and bravely to maintain his people's independence. Some writers maintain that during the conflict, Cudjoe became increasingly disillusioned, and quarrelled with his lieutenants and with other Maroon groups. He felt that the only hope for the future was a peace treaty with the enemy which recognized the independence of the Leeward Maroons. In 1742, Cudjoe had to suppress a rebellion of Leeward Maroons against the treaty.<ref>Campbell, ''The Maroons of Jamaica'', pp. 88–126.</ref>

The [[First Maroon War]] came to an end with a 1739–1740 agreement between the Maroons and the British government. In exchange, they were asked to agree not to harbour new runaway slaves, but rather to help catch them. This last clause in the treaty naturally caused a split between the Maroons and the mainly mulatto population, although from time to time runaways from the plantations still found their way into maroon settlements, such as those led by [[Three Fingered Jack (Jamaica)]]. Another provision of the agreement was that the Maroons would serve to protect the island from invaders. The latter was because the Maroons were revered by the British as skilled warriors.

A year later, the even more rebellious Windward Maroons led by [[Quao]] also agreed to sign a treaty under pressure from both white Jamaican militias and the Leeward Maroons. Eventually, [[Queen Nanny]] agreed to a land patent which meant that her Maroons also accepted peace terms.

The Maroons were to remain in their five main towns ([[Accompong]]; [[Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town)]]; [[Nanny Town]], later known as [[Moore Town]]; [[Scott's Hall (Jamaica)]]; and [[Charles Town, Jamaica]]), living under their own rulers and a British supervisor.

====Tacky's revolt====
{{Main|Tacky's revolt}}

[[File:Easter Rebellion memorial 20231007 120611.jpg|thumb|Easter Rebellion memorial 20231007 Claude Stuart Park]]
In May 1760, Tacky, a slave overseer on the [[Frontier Estate|Frontier plantation]] in [[Saint Mary Parish, Jamaica|Saint Mary Parish]], led a group of enslaved Africans in taking over the Frontier and Trinity plantations while killing their enslavers. They then marched to the storeroom at [[Fort Haldane]], where the munitions to defend the town of [[Port Maria]] were kept. After killing the storekeeper, Tacky and his men stole nearly 4 barrels of gunpowder and 40 firearms with [[lead shot|shot]], before marching on to overrun the plantations at Heywood Hall and Esher.<ref name="jamaicans1">{{cite web |url=http://www.jamaicans.com/culture/articles_culture/tackys_rebellion.shtml |title=Jamaican Culture |publisher=Jamaicans.com |date=2014-06-20 |access-date=2015-04-16 |archive-date=2015-10-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016000555/http://www.jamaicans.com/culture/articles_culture/tackys_rebellion.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Turntable Cannon 20231007 122210.jpg|thumb|left|Fort Haldane Turntable Cannon 20231007]]

By dawn, hundreds of other slaves had joined Tacky and his followers. At Ballard's Valley, the rebels stopped to rejoice in their success. One slave from Esher decided to slip away and sound the alarm.<ref name="jamaicans1"/> [[Obeah]]men (Caribbean witch doctors) quickly circulated around the camp dispensing a powder that they claimed would protect the men from injury in battle and loudly proclaimed that an Obeahman could not be killed. The confidence was high.<ref name="jamaicans1"/> Soon there were 70 to 80 mounted militia on their way along with some Maroons from Scott's Hall, who were bound by treaty to suppress such rebellions. When the militia learned of the Obeahman's boast of not being able to be killed, an Obeahman was captured, killed, and hung with his mask, ornaments of teeth and bone and feather trimmings at a prominent place visible from the encampment of rebels. Many of the rebels, confidence shaken, returned to their plantations. Tacky and 25 or so men decided to fight on.<ref name="jamaicans1"/> Tacky and his men went running through the woods being chased by the Maroons and their legendary marksman, [[Davy the Maroon]].[[File:FortHaldaneHeritageTrail20231007 121520.jpg|thumb|Fort Haldane, Jamaica heritage trail,]] While running at full speed, Davy shot Tacky and cut off his head as evidence of his feat, for which he would be richly rewarded. Tacky's head was later displayed on a pole in [[Spanish Town]] until a follower took it down in the middle of the night. The rest of Tacky's men were found in a cave near Tacky Falls, having committed suicide rather than going back to slavery.<ref name="jamaicans1"/>

====Second Maroon War====
{{Main|Second Maroon War}}

[[File:Leonard Parkinson, Maroon Leader, Jamaica, 1796.jpg|thumb|Leonard Parkinson, Maroon Leader, 1796]]

In 1795, the Second Maroon War was instigated when two Maroons were flogged by a black slave for allegedly stealing two pigs. When six Maroon leaders came to the British to present their grievances, the British took them as prisoners. This sparked an eight-month conflict, spurred by the fact that Maroons felt that they were being mistreated under the terms of [[Cudjoe]]'s Treaty of 1739, which ended the First Maroon War. The war lasted for five months as a bloody stalemate. The British colonial authorities could muster 5,000 men, outnumbering the Maroons ten to one, but the mountainous and forested topography of Jamaica proved ideal for guerrilla warfare. The Maroons surrendered in December 1795. A treaty signed in December between Major General [[George Walpole (British Army officer)|George Walpole]] and the Maroon leaders established that the Maroons would beg on their knees for the King's forgiveness, return all runaway slaves, and be relocated elsewhere in Jamaica. The governor of Jamaica ratified the treaty but gave the Maroons only three days to present themselves to beg forgiveness on 1 January 1796. Suspicious of British intentions, most of the Maroons did not surrender until mid-March. The British used the contrived breach of the treaty as a pretext to deport the entire Trelawny Town Maroons to [[Nova Scotia]]. After a few years, the Maroons were again deported to the new British settlement of [[Sierra Leone]] in [[West Africa]].

=== 19th century ===

====Slave resistance====
Hundreds of runaway slaves secured their freedom by escaping and fighting alongside the Maroons of Trelawny Town. About half of these runaways surrendered with the Maroons, and many were executed or re-sold in slavery to Cuba. However, a few hundred stayed out in the forests of the [[Cockpit Country]], and they joined other runaway communities. In 1798, a slave named [[Cuffee (Jamaica)|Cuffee]] ran away from a western estate, and established a runaway community which was able to resist attempts by the colonial forces and the Maroons remaining in Jamaica to subdue them.<ref>Siva, ''After the Treaties'', pp. 165–69, 172–75, 180–89.</ref> In the early nineteenth century, colonial records describe hundreds of runaway slaves escaping to "Healthshire" where they flourished for several years before they were captured by a party of Maroons.<ref>Siva, ''After the Treaties'', pp. 163–64, 196.</ref>

In 1812, a community of runaways started when a dozen men and some women escaped from the sugar plantations of Trelawny into the Cockpit Country, and they created a village with the curious name of [[Me-no-Sen-You-no-Come]]. By the 1820s, Me-no-Sen-You-no-Come housed between 50 and 60 runaways. The headmen of the community were escaped slaves named Warren and Forbes. Me-no-Sen-You-no-Come also conducted a thriving trade with slaves from the north coast, who exchanged their salt provisions with the runaways for their ground provisions.<ref>Siva, ''After the Treaties'', pp. 191–92.</ref> In October 1824, the colonial militias tried to destroy this community. However, the community of Me-no-Sen-You-no-Come continued to thrive in the Cockpit Country until Emancipation in the 1830s.<ref>Siva, ''After The Treaties'', pp. 192–93.</ref>

====The Baptist War====
{{Main|Baptist War}}
[[File:Duperly (1833) Destruction of the Roehampton Estate January 1832.png|thumb|Insurgent slaves destroying the [[Roehampton Estate]], January 1832]]
In 1831, enslaved [[Baptist]] preacher [[Samuel Sharpe]] led a strike among demanding more freedom and a working wage of "half the going wage rate." Upon refusal of their demands, the strike escalated into a full rebellion, in part because Sharpe had also made military preparations with a rebel military group known as the Black Regiment led by a slave known as Colonel Johnson of Retrieve Estate, about 150 strong with 50 guns among them. Colonel Johnson's Black Regiment clashed with a local militia led by Colonel Grignon at old Montpelier on December 28. The militia retreated to Montego Bay while the Black Regiment advanced an invasion of estates in the hills, inviting more slaves to join while burning houses, fields, and other properties, setting off a trail of fires through the Great River Valley in Westmoreland and St. Elizabeth to St James.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://jamaicagreathouses.com/slavery/index.html|title=Sam Sharpe and the Slave Rebellion (Baptist War)|website=Slavery in the Great House era, Jamaica Great Houses|access-date=2019-05-14|archive-date=2019-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514152636/http://jamaicagreathouses.com/slavery/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[The Baptist War]], as it was known, became the largest slave uprising in the British West Indies,<ref name=Revauger>{{cite book |title=The Abolition of Slavery – The British Debate 1787–1840 |first=Cécile |last=Révauger |author-link =Cécile Révauger |pages=107–08 |publisher=Presse Universitaire de France |year=2008 |isbn=978-2-13-057110-0}}</ref> lasting 10 days and mobilised as many as 60,000 of Jamaica's 300,000 slaves.<ref name=Higman>Barry W. Higman, "Slave Populations of the British Caribbean, 1807–1834", ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History'', Vol. 16, No. 2 (Autumn 1985), pp. 365–67.</ref> The rebellion was suppressed by colonial forces under the control of [[Willoughby Cotton|Sir Willoughby Cotton]].<ref name=Jamaica-Guide.info>{{cite web|title=An End to Slavery – 1816–1836: Jamaica Reluctantly Makes History by Freeing its Slaves |url=http://www.jamaica-guide.info/past.and.present/history/slavery.emancipation |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927021153/http://jamaica-guide.info/past.and.present/history/slavery.emancipation/ |archive-date=27 September 2013 }}</ref> The reaction of the Jamaican Government and [[plantocracy]]<ref name=craton>Craton, Michael. ''Testing the Chains: Resistance to Slavery in the British West Indies'' (Cornell University Press, 1983), pp. 297–98</ref> was far more brutal. Approximately five hundred slaves were killed in total: 207 during the revolt and somewhere in the range between 310 and 340 slaves were killed through "various forms of judicial executions" after the rebellion was concluded, at times, for quite minor offenses (one recorded execution indicates the crime being the theft of a pig; another, a cow).<ref>Mary Reckord. "The Jamaican Slave Rebellion of 1831", ''Past & Present'' (July 1968), 40(3): pp. 122, 124–25.</ref> An 1853 account by [[Henry Bleby]] described how three or four simultaneous executions were commonly observed; bodies would be allowed to pile up until workhouse slaves carted the bodies away at night and buried them in mass graves outside town.<ref name=Revauger/> The brutality of the plantocracy during the revolt is thought to have accelerated the process of emancipation, with initial measures beginning in 1833.

====Emancipation====
The British Parliament held two inquires as a result of the loss of property and life in the 1831 Baptist War rebellion.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}} Their reports of the conditions of the slaves contributed greatly to the abolition movement and helped lead to the passage of the [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833]], formally ending slavery in Jamaica on August 1, 1834. However, the act stipulated that all slaves above the age of 6 on the date abolition took effect, were bound (indentured) in service to their former owners', albeit with a guarantee of rights, under what was called the "[[Apprenticeship]] System". The length of servitude that was required varied based on the former slaves’ responsibilities with "domestic slaves" owing four years of service and "agriculture slaves" owing six. In addition to the apprentice system, former slave owners were to be compensated for the loss of their "property." By 1839, "Twenty Million Pounds Sterling" was paid out to the owners of slaves freed in the Caribbean and Africa under the [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833]], half of whom were absentee landlords residing in Great Britain.
[[File:Proclamation_of_the_abolition_of_slavery_in_the_Colony_of_Jamaica,_August_1,_1838,_in_Spanish_Town_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Governor [[Sir Lionel Smith, 1st Baronet|Sir Lionel Smith]], accompanied by Revd [[James Phillippo]], proclaiming the [[Abolition of slavery in the United States|abolition of slavery]] in the colony of Jamaica, on 1 August 1838, from the King's House in [[Spanish Town]]]]
The apprentice system was unpopular amongst Jamaica's "former" slaves{{snd}}especially elderly slaves{{snd}}who unlike slave owners were not provided any compensation.  This led to protests. In the face of mounting pressure, a resolution was passed on August 1, 1838, releasing all "apprentices" regardless of position from all obligations to their former masters.

With the [[Abolitionism|abolition of the slave trade]] in 1808 and [[slavery]] itself in 1834, the island's sugar- and slave-based economy faltered. The period after [[abolitionism in the United Kingdom|emancipation]] in 1834 initially was marked by a conflict between the plantocracy and elements in the [[Colonial Office]] over the extent to which individual freedom should be coupled with political participation for blacks. In 1840 the assembly changed the voting qualifications in a way that enabled a majority of blacks and [[Mixed race people|people of mixed race]] (browns or [[mulatto]]s) to vote. But neither change in the political system, nor abolition of slavery, changed the planter's chief interest – which lay in the continued profitability of their estates – and they continued to dominate the [[Elitism|elitist]] assembly. Nevertheless, at the end of the 19th century and in the early years of the 20th century, the Crown began to allow some Jamaicans – mostly local merchants, urban professionals, and artisans – to hold seats on appointed councils.

Rumblings of emancipation movements had begun as early as the 1780s which scared many planters. With the fear of being unable to purchase a sufficient labor force through the slave trade, the value of women increased. From 1788 to 1807, some planters began to buy women at a higher rate, trying to balance the gender ratio to 50–50.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Turner |first=Sasha |date=January 1, 2011 |title=Home-Grown Slaves: Women, Reproduction, and the Abolition of the Slave Trade, Jamaica 1788–1807 |url=https://doi.org/10.1353/jowh.2011.0029 |journal=Journal of Women's History |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=39–62 |doi=10.1353/jowh.2011.0029 |pmid=22145181 |via=Project MUSE}}</ref> The reason for buying women in higher amounts was so that they could give birth to more slaves. This served two purposes, one was to supply their labor force even in the eventual passing of emancipation, and secondly to cut down on future spending by instead having your slave be born instead of purchased. Minimizing spending became a large priority following emancipation and the decline of the sugar based economy of Jamaica, making running a plantation very expensive.  Merchants still found a way to stay wealthy in the wake of emancipation through the importation of British goods into Spanish America, enabling communities such as Kingston that were built on the economy of the slave trade to see continued economic prosperity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burnard |first=Trevor |date=February 21, 2020 |title=Slaves and Slavery in Kingston, 1770–1815 |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020859020000073 |journal=Internation Review of Social History |volume=65 |issue=S28 |pages=39–65 |doi=10.1017/S0020859020000073 |via=Cambridge Core}}</ref>

====The Morant Bay Rebellion====
{{Main|Morant Bay Rebellion}}
Tensions between blacks and whites resulted in the October 1865 [[Morant Bay rebellion]] led by [[Paul Bogle]]. The rebellion was sparked on 7 October, when a black man was put on trial and imprisoned for allegedly trespassing on a long-abandoned plantation. During the proceedings, James Geoghegon, a black spectator, disrupted the trial, and in the police's attempts to seize him to remove him from the courthouse, a fight broke out between the police and other spectators. While pursuing Geoghegon, two policemen were beaten with sticks and stones.<ref>Holt (1992), p. 295.</ref> The following Monday, arrest warrants were issued for several men for rioting, resisting arrest, and assaulting the police. Among them was Baptist preacher Paul Bogle. A few days later on 11 October, Mr. Paul Bogle marched with a group of protesters to Morant Bay. When the group arrived at the courthouse they were met by a small and inexperienced volunteer militia. The crowd began pelting the militia with rocks and sticks, and the militia opened fire on the group, killing seven black protesters before retreating.

[[File:Honoré Daumier - LOrdre règne la Jamaïque - 1866.jpg|thumb|1866 lithography by French cartoonist [[Honoré Daumier]] showing British Governor [[John Peter Grant]] establishing his authority following the [[Morant Bay rebellion|Morant Bay Rebellion]]]]

Governor [[Edward John Eyre|John Eyre]] sent government troops, under Brigadier-General [[Alexander Nelson (British Army officer)|Alexander Nelson]],<ref>[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/19875 "Alexander Nelson"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303185251/http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/19875 |date=2016-03-03 }} at ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''.</ref> to hunt down the poorly armed rebels and bring Paul Bogle back to Morant Bay for trial. The troops met with no organized resistance, yet they killed blacks indiscriminately, most of whom had not been involved in the riot or rebellion.  According to one soldier, "We slaughtered all before us... man or woman or child.”{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}  In the end, 439 black Jamaicans were killed directly by soldiers, and 354 more (including Paul Bogle) were arrested and later executed, some without proper trials. Paul Bogle was executed "either the same evening he was tried or the next morning."<ref name="IPN">"The Jamaica Prosecutions. Further Examinations of Colonel Nelson and Lieutenant Brand", ''The Illustrated Police News: Law-Courts and Weekly Record'' (London), 23 February 1867: 1.</ref> Other punishments included the flogging of over 600 men and women (including some pregnant women), and long prison sentences.  Thousands of homes belonging to black Jamaicans were burned down without any justifiable reason.

[[George William Gordon]], Jamaican-born plantation owner, businessman and politician, who was the mixed-race son of Scottish-born plantation owner of Cherry Gardens in St. Andrew, Joseph Gordon, and his black enslaved mistress. Gordon, had been critical of Governor John Eyre and his policies, and was later arrested by the Governor who believed he had been behind the rebellion. Despite having very little to do with the rebellion, Gordon was eventually executed. Though he was arrested in Kingston, he was transferred by Eyre to Morant Bay, where he could be tried under [[martial law]]. The execution and trial of Gordon via martial law raised some constitutional issues back in Britain, where concerns emerged about whether British dependencies should be ruled under the government of law, or through a military license.<ref>{{cite book|last=Semmel|first=Bernard|title=The Governor Eyre Controversy|year=1962|publisher=MacGibbon & Kee|location=London|pages=128}}</ref>  Gordon hanged on 23 October, after a speedy trial – just two days after his trial had begun. He and William Bogle, Paul's brother, "were both tried together, and executed at the same time.”{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}

====Decline of the sugar industry====
[[File:Cane cutters in Jamaica.jpg|thumb|upright|Sugar cane cutters in Jamaica, 1880]]
During most of the 18th century, the [[Monocropping|monocrop]] economy based on sugarcane production for export flourished. In the last quarter of the century, however, the Jamaican sugar economy declined as famines, hurricanes, colonial wars, and wars of independence disrupted trade. By the 1820s, Jamaican sugar became less competitive with the high-volume producers like Cuba, and production subsequently declined. By 1882 sugar output was less than half what it was in 1828. A major reason for the decline was the [[British Parliament]]'s [[Slave Trade Act 1807|1807 abolition of the slave trade]], under which the transportation of slaves to Jamaica after 1 March 1808 was forbidden.  The abolition of the slave trade was followed by [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833|the abolition of slavery in 1834]] and full emancipation of slaves within four years. Unable to convert the ex-slaves into a sharecropping tenant class similar to the one established in the [[Reconstruction Era|post-Civil War South of the United States]], planters became increasingly dependent on wage labour and began recruiting workers abroad, primarily from [[British Raj|India]], [[Qing dynasty|China]], and [[Sierra Leone]]. Many of the former slaves settled in peasant or small farm communities in the interior of the island  like the "yam belt," where they engaged in subsistence and some [[cash crop]] farming.

The second half of the 19th century was a period of severe economic decline for Jamaica. Low crop prices, droughts, and disease led to serious social unrest, culminating in the [[Morant Bay rebellion]]s of 1865. However, renewed British administration after the 1865 rebellion, in the form of [[crown colony]] status, resulted in some social and economic progress as well as investment in the physical infrastructure. Agricultural development was the centrepiece of restored British rule in Jamaica. In 1868 the first large-scale irrigation project was launched. In 1895 the Jamaica Agricultural Society was founded to promote more scientific and profitable methods of farming. Also in the 1890s, the Crown Lands Settlement Scheme was introduced, a land reform program of sorts, which allowed small farmers to purchase two hectares or more of land on favorable terms.

[[File:Cane cutters, Jamaica, 1891.jpg|thumb|left|Sugar cane cutters in Jamaica, 1891]]
Between 1865 and 1930, the character of landholding in Jamaica changed substantially, as sugar declined in importance. As many former plantations went bankrupt, some land was sold to Jamaican peasants under the Crown Lands Settlement whereas other cane fields were consolidated by dominant British producers, most notably by the British firm [[Tate & Lyle|Tate and Lyle]]. Although the concentration of land and wealth in Jamaica was not as drastic as in the [[Spanish Caribbean|Spanish-speaking Caribbean]], by the 1920s the typical sugar plantation on the island had increased to an average of 266 hectares. But, as noted, smallscale agriculture in Jamaica survived the consolidation of land by sugar powers. The number of small holdings in fact tripled between 1865 and 1930, thus retaining a large portion of the population as peasantry. Most of the expansion in small holdings took place before 1910, with farms averaging between two and twenty hectares.

The rise of the [[banana]] trade during the second half of the 19th century also changed production and trade patterns on the island. Bananas were first exported in 1867, and banana farming grew rapidly thereafter. By 1890, bananas had replaced sugar as Jamaica's principal export. Production rose from 5 million stems (32 percent of exports) in 1897 to an average of 20 million stems a year in the 1920s and 1930s, or over half of domestic exports. As with sugar, the presence of American companies, like the well-known [[United Fruit Company]] in Jamaica, was a driving force behind renewed agricultural exports. Competition was introduced by the Jamaican-Italian firm [[Alfred Constantine Goffe|Lanasa & Goffe]] raising the price paid for bananas in 1906. The British also became more interested in Jamaican bananas than in the country's sugar. Expansion of banana production, however, was hampered by serious labour shortages. The rise of the banana economy took place amidst a general exodus of up to 11,000 Jamaicans a year.

Coffee plantations also suffered as a result of emancipation. Even with paid labor becoming a fixture on these coffee plantations, the newfound wages that ex-slaves were paid and lower profits made it difficult to effectively run the plantation financially. One planter found that running his plantation cost about £2400 per year, which was about double of what it had cost in the years before 1839.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |last=Monteith |first=Kathleen E.A. |date=June 13, 2008 |title=Emancipation and labour on Jamaican coffee plantations, 1838–48 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01440390008575323 |journal=Slavery and Abolition |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=125–35 |doi=10.1080/01440390008575323 |via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> Some planters attempted to tie the now free laborers to the land by making them have to pay rent if they worked and lived on the plantation. Many laborers of course rejected these arrangements, as with a declining plantation economy they sought to separate themselves from the plantation.<ref name=":03" /> Following these trends, the market for many of these workers declined on the plantation and shifted to the more urban centers such as Kingston, leaving the plantation economy of Jamaica behind.

====Jamaica as a Crown Colony====
In 1846 Jamaican planters – adversely affected by the loss of slave labour – suffered a crushing blow when Britain passed the [[Sugar Duties Act 1846|Sugar Duties Act]], eliminating Jamaica's traditionally favoured status as its primary supplier of sugar. The Jamaica House of Assembly stumbled from one crisis to another until the collapse of the [[sugar trade]], when racial and religious tensions came to a head during the [[Morant Bay rebellion]] of 1865. Although suppressed ruthlessly, the severe rioting so alarmed the planters that the two-centuries-old assembly voted to abolish itself and asked for the establishment of direct British rule. In 1866 the new governor [[John Peter Grant]] arrived to implement a series of reforms that accompanied the transition to a [[crown colony]]. The government consisted of the Legislative Council and the executive Privy Council containing members of both chambers of the House of Assembly, but the Colonial Office exercised effective power through a presiding British governor. The council included a few handpicked prominent Jamaicans for the sake of appearance only.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} In the late 19th century, crown colony rule was modified; representation and limited self-rule were reintroduced gradually into Jamaica after 1884. The colony's legal structure was reformed along the lines of [[English common law]] and county courts, and a [[Jamaica Constabulary Force|constabulary force]] was established. The smooth working of the crown colony system depended on a good understanding and an identity of interests between the governing officials, who were British, and most of the nonofficial, nominated members of the Legislative Council, who were [[Jamaican people|Jamaicans]]. The elected members of this body were in a permanent minority and without any influence or administrative power. The unstated alliance – based on shared color, attitudes, and interest – between the British officials and the Jamaican upper class was reinforced in London, where the West India Committee lobbied for Jamaican interests. Jamaica's white or near-white propertied class continued to hold the dominant position in every respect; the vast majority of the black population remained poor and disenfranchised.

====Religion====
Until it was disestablished in 1870, the Church of England in Jamaica was the established church. It represented the white English community. It received funding from the colonial government and was given responsibility for providing religious instruction to the slaves. It was challenged by Methodist missionaries from England, and the Methodists in turn were denounced as troublemakers. The Church of England in Jamaica established the Jamaica Home and Foreign Missionary Society in 1861; its mission stations multiplied, with financial help from religious organizations in London. The Society sent its own missionaries to West Africa. Baptist missions grew rapidly, thanks to missionaries from England and the United States, and became the largest denomination by 1900. Baptist missionaries denounced the apprentice system as a form of slavery. In the 1870s and 1880s, the Methodists opened a high school and a theological college. Other Protestant groups included the Moravians, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Seventh-day Adventist, Church of God, and others. There were several thousand Roman Catholics.<ref>See [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08270a.htm "Jamaica' in ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1910)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029204716/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08270a.htm |date=2009-10-29 }}</ref> The population was largely Christian by 1900, and most families were linked with the church or a Sunday School. Traditional pagan practices persisted in an unorganized fashion, such as witchcraft.<ref>Kenneth Scott Latourette. ''Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, III: The Nineteenth Century Outside Europe: The Americas, the Pacific, Asia and Africa'' (1961), pp. 279–81.</ref>

====Kingston, the new capital====
{{Main|Kingston, Jamaica#History}}
In 1872, the government passed an act to transfer government offices from Spanish Town to Kingston. Kingston had been founded as a refuge for survivors of the [[1692 Jamaica earthquake|1692 earthquake]] that destroyed [[Port Royal]]. The town did not begin to grow until after the further destruction of Port Royal by fire in 1703. Surveyor John Goffe drew up a plan for the town based on a grid bounded by North, East, West, and Harbour Streets. By 1716 it had become the largest town and the center of trade for [[Jamaica]]. The government sold the land to people with the regulation that they purchase no more than the amount of the land that they owned in [[Port Royal]], and the only land on the sea front. Gradually wealthy merchants began to move their residences from above their businesses to the farm lands north on the plains of [[Liguanea]]. In 1755 the [[List of Governors of Jamaica|governor]], [[Sir Charles Knowles, 1st Baronet|Sir Charles Knowles]], had decided to transfer the government offices from [[Spanish Town]] to Kingston. It was thought by some to be an unsuitable location for the Assembly in proximity to the moral distractions of Kingston, and the next governor rescinded the Act. However, by 1780 the population of Kingston was 11,000, and the merchants began lobbying for the administrative capital to be transferred from Spanish Town, which was by then eclipsed by the commercial activity in Kingston. The [[1907 Kingston earthquake]] destroyed much of the city. Considered by many writers of that time one of the world's deadliest earthquakes, it resulted in the death of over 800 Jamaicans and destroyed the homes of over 10,000 more.<ref name="Wilson">{{cite book|author=J. F. Wilson|title=Earthquakes and Volcanoes: Hot Springs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AsKRgxpfL_gC&pg=PA69|year=2008|publisher=BiblioBazaar|isbn=978-0-554-56496-8|page=70|access-date=2015-11-17|archive-date=2023-07-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702122920/https://books.google.com/books?id=AsKRgxpfL_gC&pg=PA69|url-status=live}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Valentine_and_Sons_-_Street_View,_Kingston,_Jamaica,_1891_15518824134.jpg|Kingston in 1891
File:Valentine_and_Sons_-_Street_View,_Kingston,_Jamaica,_1891_15955077659.jpg|Horse-drawn carriages in Kingston, 1891
File:Map Kingston 1897.jpg|Map of Kingston in 1897
File:Kingston (1907).jpg|View of Kingston in 1907 showing damage caused by the earthquake.
</gallery>

=== Early 20th century ===
====Bananas====

{{Main|History of modern banana plantations in the Americas}}

[[File:Port Maria Harbor 20231007 123647.jpg|thumb|left|Port Maria Harbor, St Mary Parish]]The earliest modern plantations originated in Jamaica and the related [[Western Caribbean Zone]], including most of [[Central America]]. It involved the combination of modern transportation networks of steamships and railroads with the development of refrigeration that allowed more time between harvesting and ripening. North American shippers like [[Lorenzo Dow Baker]] and [[Andrew Preston (businessman)|Andrew Preston]], the founders of the [[Boston Fruit Company]] started this process in the 1870s, but railroad builders like [[Minor C. Keith]] also participated, eventually culminating in the multi-national giant corporations like today's [[Chiquita Brands International]] and [[Dole Food Company|Dole]]. These companies were [[monopoly|monopolistic]], [[vertically integrated]] (meaning they controlled growing, processing, shipping and marketing) and usually used political manipulation to build [[enclave economy|enclave economies]] (economies that were internally self-sufficient, virtually tax exempt, and export-oriented that contribute very little to the host economy). [[Alfred Constantine Goffe]] was a Jamaican Businessman whose St. Mary Banana co-op was the first in Jamaica, opposed the larger export companies and by 1909 had the largest Jamaican owned Banana export company.<ref name="LMH">{{cite web |title=When Banana was King  |url=https://www.lmhpublishing.com/non-fiction/when-banana-was-king-paperback |website=www.lmhpublishing.com |publisher=LMH Publishers Limited |accessdate=18 November 2019 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The resurgence of the Baltimore docks and newer, faster boats,  refrigeration on board steamships and rail-cars enabled bananas to travel further to meet the demand for the yellow fruit, for which the firm of [[Alfred Constantine Goffe|Lanasa and Goffe]] excelled .

====Marcus Garvey====
{{Main|Marcus Garvey}}
[[File:Marcus Garvey 1924-08-05.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Marcus Garvey]] ]]

[[Marcus Garvey|Marcus Mosiah Garvey]], a black activist, [[Trade union|Trade Unionist]], and husband to [[Amy Jacques Garvey]] founded the [[Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League]] in 1914, one of Jamaica's first political parties in 1929, and a workers association in the early 1930s. Garvey also promoted the [[Back-to-Africa movement]], which called for those of [[African descent]] to return to the homelands of their ancestors.<ref name=back>{{cite web|title=Historian situates 'back-to-Africa' movements in broad context|url=http://news.stanford.edu/news/2006/march1/colonize-030106.html|date=March 2006|publisher=Stanford.edu|access-date=24 August 2013|archive-date=29 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729121919/http://news.stanford.edu/news/2006/march1/colonize-030106.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Garvey, a controversial figure, had been the target of a four-year investigation by the [[United States government]]. He was convicted of [[mail fraud]] in 1923 and had served most of a five-year term in an [[Atlanta]] penitentiary when he was deported to Jamaica in 1927. Garvey left the colony in 1935 to live in the [[United Kingdom]], where he died heavily in debt five years later. He was proclaimed Jamaica's first national hero in the 1960s after [[Edward Seaga|Edward P.G. Seaga]], then a government minister arranged the return of his remains to Jamaica. In 1987 Jamaica petitioned the [[United States Congress]] to pardon Garvey on the basis that the federal charges brought against him were unsubstantiated and unjust.<ref>{{cite web|title=Marcus Garvey 1887–1940|url=http://www.theunia-acl.com/index.php/marcus-garvey-1887-1940|publisher=UNIA-ACL|access-date=24 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617162429/http://www.theunia-acl.com/index.php/marcus-garvey-1887-1940|archive-date=17 June 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====Rastafari movement====
{{Main|Rastafari}}
The [[Rastafari movement]], a new religion, emerged among impoverished and socially disenfranchised [[Afro-Jamaican]] communities in 1930s Jamaica. Its Afrocentric ideology was largely a reaction against Jamaica's then-dominant [[Anglocentrism|British colonial culture]]. It was influenced by both [[Ethiopian movement|Ethiopianism]] and the [[Back-to-Africa movement]] promoted by black nationalist figures like [[Marcus Garvey]]. The movement developed after several Christian clergymen, most notably Leonard Howell, proclaimed that the crowning of [[Haile Selassie]] as Emperor of Ethiopia in 1930 fulfilled a Biblical prophecy. By the 1950s, Rastafari's counter-cultural stance had brought the movement into conflict with wider Jamaican society, including violent clashes with law enforcement. In the 1960s and 1970s, it gained increased respectability within Jamaica and greater visibility abroad through the popularity of Rasta-inspired [[reggae]] musicians like [[Bob Marley]] and [[Peter Tosh]]. Enthusiasm for Rastafari declined in the 1980s, following the deaths of Haile Selassie and Marley.<ref>M.G. Smith, Roy Augier and Rex Nettleford, [https://web.archive.org/web/20160109153931/http://www.cifas.us/sites/g/files/g536796/f/1960e_RasTafariMov_B.pdf "The Ras Tafari Movement in Kingston, Jamaica"] (Institute of Social and Economic Research, University College of the West Indies, 1960) in ''Caribbean Quarterly'' vol. 13, no. 3 (September 1967), pp. 3–29; and vol. 13, no. 4 (December 1967), pp. 3–14.</ref>

====The Great Depression and worker protests====
{{Main|British West Indian labour unrest of 1934–1939}}
The [[Great Depression]] caused sugar prices to slump in 1929 and led to the return of many Jamaicans. Economic stagnation, discontent with unemployment, low wages, high prices, and poor living conditions caused [[British West Indian labour unrest of 1934–1939|social unrest in the 1930s]]. Uprisings in Jamaica began on the Frome Sugar Estate in the western [[Westmoreland Parish|parish of Westmoreland]] and quickly spread east to [[Kingston, Jamaica|Kingston]]. Jamaica, in particular, set the pace for the region in its demands for economic development from British colonial rule.

Because of disturbances in Jamaica and the rest of the region, the British in 1938 appointed the [[Report of West India Royal Commission (Moyne Report)|Moyne Commission]]. An immediate result of the commission was the Colonial Development Welfare Act, which provided for the expenditure of approximately Ł1 million a year for twenty years on coordinated development in the [[British West Indies]]. Concrete actions, however, were not implemented to deal with Jamaica's massive structural problems.

====New unions and parties====
The rise of [[nationalism]], as distinct from island identification or desire for [[self-determination]], is generally dated to the [[British West Indian labor unrest of 1934–1939|1938 labor riots]] that affected both Jamaica and the islands of the Eastern Caribbean. [[William Alexander Bustamante]] (formerly William Alexander Clarke), a moneylender in the capital city of [[Kingston, Jamaica|Kingston]] who had formed the Jamaica Trade Workers and Tradesmen Union (JTWTU) three years earlier, captured the imagination of the black masses with his messianic personality, even though he himself was light-skinned, affluent, and aristocratic. Bustamante emerged from the 1938 strikes and other disturbances as a populist leader and the principal spokesperson for the militant urban working class, and in that year, using the JTWTU as a stepping stone, he founded the [[Bustamante Industrial Trade Union]] (BITU), which inaugurated Jamaica's worker's movement.

A first cousin of Bustamante, [[Norman Manley|Norman W. Manley]], concluded as a result of the 1938 riots that the real basis for national unity in Jamaica lay in the masses. Unlike the union-oriented Bustamante, however, Manley was more interested in access to control over [[Power (social and political)|state power]] and [[political rights]] for the masses. On 18 September 1938, he inaugurated the [[People's National Party]] (PNP), which had begun as a nationalist movement supported by Bustamante and the mixed-race middle class (which included the intelligentsia) and the liberal sector of the business community with leaders who were highly educated members of the [[upper middle class]]. The 1938 riots spurred the PNP to [[Trade union|unionize labor]], although it would be several years before the PNP formed major labor unions. The party concentrated its earliest efforts on establishing a network both in urban areas and in banana-growing rural [[Parishes of Jamaica|parishes]], later working on building support among small farmers and in areas of [[bauxite mining]].

The PNP adopted a [[socialist]] ideology in 1940 and later joined the [[Socialist International]], allying itself formally with the [[social democratic]] parties of [[Western Europe]]. Guided by socialist principles, Manley was not a doctrinaire socialist. PNP socialism during the 1940s was similar to [[British Labour Party]] ideas on state control of the factors of production, [[equality of opportunity]], and a [[welfare state]], although a left-wing element in the PNP held more orthodox [[Marxist]] views and worked for the internationalization of the trade union movement through the Caribbean Labour Congress. In those formative years of Jamaican political and union activity, relations between Manley and Bustamante were cordial. Manley defended Bustamante in court against charges brought by the British for his labor activism in the 1938 riots and looked after the BITU during Bustamante's imprisonment.

Bustamante had political ambitions of his own, however. In 1942, while still incarcerated, he founded a political party to rival the PNP, called the [[Jamaica Labour Party]] (JLP). The new party, whose leaders were of a lower class than those of the PNP, was supported by conservative businessmen and 60,000 dues-paying BITU members, who encompassed dock and sugar plantation workers and other unskilled urban laborers. On his release in 1943, Bustamante began building up the JLP. Meanwhile, several PNP leaders organized the leftist-oriented Trade Union Congress (TUC). Thus, from an early stage in modern Jamaica, unionized labor was an integral part of organized political life.

For the next quarter-century, Bustamante and Manley competed for center stage in Jamaican political affairs, the former espousing the cause of the "barefoot man"; the latter, "democratic socialism," a loosely defined political and economic theory aimed at achieving a [[Classless society|classless]] system of government. Jamaica's two founding fathers projected quite different popular images. Bustamante, lacking even a [[high school diploma]], was an autocratic, charismatic, and highly adept politician; Manley was an athletic, [[University of Oxford|Oxford-trained]] lawyer, [[Rhodes Scholarship|Rhodes scholar]], humanist, and liberal intellectual. Although considerably more reserved than Bustamante, Manley was well-liked and widely respected. He was also a visionary nationalist who became the driving force behind the crown colony's quest for independence.

Following the 1938 disturbances in the [[West Indies]], London sent the [[Report of West India Royal Commission (Moyne Report)|Moyne Commission]] to study conditions in the [[British West Indies|British Caribbean territories]]. Its findings led in the early 1940s to better wages and a new constitution. Issued on 20 November 1944, the [[Constitution of Jamaica|Constitution]] modified the crown colony system and inaugurated limited self-government based on the [[Westminster system|Westminster model of government]] and [[universal adult suffrage]]. It also embodied the island's principles of ministerial responsibility and the rule of law. Thirty-one percent of the population participated in the [[Jamaican general election, 1944|1944 elections]]. The JLP – helped by its promises to create jobs, its practice of dispensing public funds in pro-JLP parishes, and the PNP's relatively radical platform – won an 18 percent majority of the votes over the PNP, as well as 22 seats in the 32-member House of Representatives, with 5 going to the PNP and 5 to other short-lived parties. In 1945 Bustamante took office as Jamaica's first premier (the pre-independence title for [[Prime Minister of Jamaica|head of government]]).

Under the new charter, the British governor, assisted by the six-member Privy Council and 10-member Executive Council, remained responsible solely to the crown. The Jamaican Legislative Council became the upper house, or Senate, of the bicameral Parliament. House members were elected by adult suffrage from single-member electoral districts called constituencies. Despite these changes, ultimate power remained concentrated in the hands of the governor and other high officials.<ref name=jlp>{{cite web|title=The Jamaican Labour Party (JLP) |url=http://www.alexanderbustamante.com/the-jlp.php |work=2005 |publisher=BBC |access-date=24 August 2013 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130803163859/http://www.alexanderbustamante.com/the-jlp.php |archive-date=3 August 2013 }}</ref><ref name=Constit>{{cite web|title=History this week:Constitutional Developments in British Guiana and Jamaica between 1890 and 1945 (Part 3)|url=http://www.stabroeknews.com/2010/features/05/13/history-this-weekconstitutional-developments-in-british-guiana-and-jamaica-between-1890-and-1945-part-3/|work=13 May 2010|date=13 May 2010|publisher=StabroekNews|access-date=24 August 2013}}</ref>