Editing History of Italy (section)

==Iron Age==
{{Main|Iron Age Italy}}

===Etruscan civilization===
{{Main|Etruscan civilization}}
The [[Etruscan civilization]] flourished in central Italy after 800 BC. The main hypotheses on the origins of the [[Etruscans]] are that they are indigenous,<ref name="plosone.org" /> probably stemming from the [[Villanovan culture]], or that they are the result of invasion from the north or the [[Near East]]. A 2007 study has suggested a [[Near East]]ern origin.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Achilli A, Olivieri A, Pala M, etal |date=April 2007 |title=Mitochondrial DNA variation of modern Tuscans supports the near eastern origin of Etruscans |journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet. |volume=80 |issue=4 |pages=759–68 |doi=10.1086/512822 |pmc=1852723 |pmid=17357081}}</ref> The researchers conclude that their data, taken from the modern Tuscan population, "support the scenario of a post-Neolithic genetic input from the Near East to the present-day population of Tuscany". In the absence of any dating evidence, there is however no direct link between this genetic input and the Etruscans. By contrast, a [[mtDNA|mitochondrial DNA]] study of 2013 has suggested that the Etruscans were probably an indigenous population. Among ancient populations, ancient Etruscans are found to be closest to a Neolithic population from Central Europe.<ref name="plosone.org">{{Cite journal |last1=Ghirotto |first1=Silvia |last2=Tassi |first2=Francesca |last3=Fumagalli |first3=Erica |last4=Colonna |first4=Vincenza |last5=Sandionigi |first5=Anna |last6=Lari |first6=Martina |last7=Vai |first7=Stefania |last8=Petiti |first8=Emmanuele |last9=Corti |first9=Giorgio |last10=Rizzi |first10=Ermanno |last11=De Bellis |first11=Gianluca |last12=Caramelli |first12=David |last13=Barbujani |first13=Guido |date=2013-02-06 |editor-last=Hawks |editor-first=John |title=Origins and Evolution of the Etruscans' mtDNA |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=2 |page=e55519 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...855519G |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0055519 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=3566088 |pmid=23405165 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

It is widely accepted that Etruscans spoke a non-[[Indo-European language]]. Some inscriptions in a similar language, known as [[Lemnian language|Lemnian]], have been found on the Aegean island of [[Lemnos]]. Etruscans were a monogamous society that emphasized pairing. The historical Etruscans had achieved a form of state with remnants of chiefdom and tribal forms. The first attestations of an [[Etruscan religion]] can be traced to the [[Villanovan culture]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Thomson de Grummond |first1=Nancy |author-link=Nancy Thomson de Grummond |title=The Religion of the Etruscans |last2=Simon |first2=Erika |author-link2=Erika Simon |date=2006 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=0-2927-0687-1 |location=Austin}}</ref>

Etruscan expansion was focused across the [[Apennines]]. The political structure of the Etruscan culture was similar, albeit more aristocratic, to Magna Graecia in the south. The mining and commerce of metal, especially copper and iron, led to an enrichment of the Etruscans and to the expansion of their influence in the Italian peninsula and the western [[Mediterranean]]. Here their interests collided with those of the Greeks, especially in the 6th century BC, when [[Phoceans]] of Italy founded colonies along the coast of France, Catalonia and [[Corsica]]. This led the Etruscans to ally themselves with the [[Carthaginians]].<ref name="historyone">{{Cite book |last=Bonfante |first=Larissa |author-link=Larissa Bonfante |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4QaXZky58FIC&pg=PA58 |title=Etruscan Life and Afterlife: A Handbook of Etruscan Studies |date=1986 |publisher=Wayne State University Press |isbn=0-8143-1813-4 |page=58}}</ref><ref name="historytwo">{{Cite book |last=Franklin Hall |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bUhT7i7XhOAC&pg=PA198 |title=Etruscan Italy: Etruscan Influences on the Civilizations of Italy from Antiquity to the Modern Era |date=1996 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=0-8425-2334-0 |page=198}}</ref>

Around 540 BC, the [[Battle of Alalia]] led to a new distribution of power in the western Mediterranean. [[Carthage]] expanded its sphere of influence at the expense of the Greeks, and [[Etruria]] saw itself relegated to Corsica. From the first half of the 5th century, the new international political situation meant the beginning of the Etruscan decline. In 480 BC, Etruria's ally Carthage was defeated by a coalition of Magna Graecia cities led by [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]].<ref name="historyone" /><ref name="historytwo" />

A few years later, in 474 BC, Syracuse's tyrant [[Hiero I of Syracuse|Hiero]] defeated the Etruscans at the [[Battle of Cumae]]. Etruria's influence over the cities of [[Latium]] and Campania weakened, and it was taken over by Romans and [[Samnites]]. In the 4th century, Etruria saw a [[Gaul|Gallic]] invasion end its influence over the [[Po River|Po]] valley and the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]] coast. Meanwhile, [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] had started annexing Etruscan cities. This led to the loss of their north provinces. [[Etruscia]] was assimilated by Rome around 500 BC.<ref name="historyone" /><ref name="historytwo" />

{{Gallery|align=center
|width=160 |File:Tomba dei Rilievi (Banditaccia).jpg|Necropolis of Banditaccia located in [[Cerveteri]], Lazio
|File:Chimera d'arezzo, fi, 03.JPG|[[Chimera of Arezzo]]
|File:Perugia, Museo archeologico Nazionale dell'Umbria, cippo di Perugia.jpg|[[Cippus Perusinus]]
}}

===Italic peoples===
{{Main|Italic peoples}}
[[File:Samnite theater of Pietrabbondante.JPG|thumb|[[Samnites|Samnite]] sanctuary complex at [[Pietrabbondante]]]]

[[File:Femmes peucètes dansant, fresque.jpg|thumb|Fresco of dancing [[Peucetians|Peucetian]] women in the [[Tomb of the Dancers]] in [[Ruvo di Puglia]], 4th–5th century BC]]
The Italic peoples were an [[ethnolinguistic group]] identified by use of [[Italic languages]]. Among the Italic peoples in the Italian peninsula were the [[Osci]], the [[Adriatic Veneti|Veneti]], the [[Samnites]], the [[Latins (Italic tribe)|Latins]] and the [[Umbri]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-12 |title=I popoli italici: l'Italia prima di Roma |url=https://www.storicang.it/a/i-popoli-italici-litalia-prima-di-roma_15064 |access-date=2022-01-19 |website=storicang.it |language=it}}</ref>

In the region south of the [[Tiber]] (''Latium Vetus''), the [[Latial culture]] of the [[Latins (Italic tribe)|Latins]] emerged, while in the north-east of the peninsula the [[Este culture]] of the [[Adriatic Veneti|Veneti]] appeared. Roughly in the same period, from their core area in central Italy (modern-day [[Umbria]] and [[Sabina (region)|Sabina]]), the [[Osci|Osco]]-[[Umbri]]ans began to emigrate in various waves, through the process of [[Ver sacrum]], the ritualized extension of colonies, in southern Latium, [[Molise]] and the whole southern half of the peninsula, replacing the previous tribes, such as the [[Opici]] and the [[Oenotrians]]. This corresponds with the emergence of the Terni culture, which had strong similarities with the Celtic cultures of Hallstatt and [[La Tène culture|La Tène]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Farinacci |first=Manlio |title=Carsulae svelata e Terni sotterranea |date=1997 |publisher=Stampato a cura dell'autore |language=it}}</ref>

Before and during the period of the arrival of the Greek and Phoenician immigrants, Sicily was already inhabited by native Italics in three major groups: the [[Elymians]] in the west, the [[Sicani]] in the centre, and the [[Sicels]] (source of the name Sicily) in the east.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chi erano e cosa facevano i siciliani di 3.000 anni fa? |url=https://www.focus.it/cultura/storia/vita-siciliani-tremila-anni-fa |access-date=2022-01-27 |website=Focus.it}}</ref>

It is generally believed that around [[20th century BC|2000 BC]], the [[Ligures]] occupied a large area of the peninsula, including much of north-western Italy and all of northern Tuscany. Since many scholars consider the [[Ligurian (ancient language)|language]] of this ancient population to be [[Pre-Indo-European languages|Pre-Indo-European]], they are often not classified as Italics.<ref name="Treccanionline">{{Cite news |date=2011 |title=Liguri |url=http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/liguri |work=Treccani.it |department=Enciclopedie on line |publisher=[[Treccani|Treccani -Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana]] |location=Rome |language=it |quote=Le documentazioni sulla lingua dei Liguri non ne permettono una classificazione linguistica certa (preindoeuropeo di tipo mediterraneo? Indoeuropeo di tipo celtico?).}}</ref>

By the mid-first millennium BCE, the Latins of [[Rome]] were growing in power and influence. After the Latins had liberated themselves from Etruscan rule they acquired a dominant position among the Italic tribes. Frequent conflict between various Italic tribes followed; the best documented are the [[Samnite Wars]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Catherine Mason |first=Carl Waldman |title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples |publisher=Infobase Publishing |pages=452–459}}</ref> The Latins eventually succeeded in unifying the Italic elements in the country. In the early first century BCE, several Italic tribes, in particular the [[Marsi]] and the Samnites, rebelled against Roman rule (the [[Social War (91–88 BC)|Social War]]). After Roman victory was secured, all peoples in Italy, except for the [[Celts]] of the Po Valley, were granted [[Roman citizenship]]. In the subsequent centuries, Italic tribes adopted [[Latin]] language and culture in a process known as [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanization]].<ref name=":0" />

===Magna Graecia===
{{Main|Magna Graecia}}
[[File:Magna Graecia ancient colonies and dialects-en.svg|thumb|left|Ancient Greek colonies and their [[:w:Ancient Greek dialects|dialect]] groupings in [[Magna Graecia]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Woodard |first=Roger D. |title=The Ancient Languages of Europe |date=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-5216-8495-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge/page/51 51] |chapter=Greek dialects |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge/page/51}}</ref>
{{Legend|#cea980|NW Greek}}
{{Legend|#b5ad96|Achaean}}
{{Legend|#eacd85|Doric}}
{{Legend|#bebada|Ionian}}]]

In the eighth and seventh centuries BC, for reasons including demographic crisis, the search for new commercial outlets and ports, and expulsion from their homeland, Greeks began to settle along the coast of Sicily and the southern part of the Italian peninsula, which became known as [[Magna Graecia]].<ref>Emilio Peruzzi, ''Mycenaeans in early Latium'', (Incunabula Graeca 75), Edizioni dell'Ateneo & Bizzarri, Roma, 1980</ref>

[[Greek culture]] was exported to Italy, in its dialects of the [[Ancient Greek language]], its religious rites and its traditions of the independent ''[[polis]]''. An original [[Hellenic civilization]] soon developed, later interacting with the native [[Italic languages|Italic]] and [[Rome|Latin civilisations]]. The most important cultural transplant was the [[Chalcis|Chalcidean]]/[[Cumaean alphabet|Cumaean]] variety of the [[Greek alphabet]], which was adopted by the [[Etruscans]]; the [[Old Italic alphabet]] subsequently evolved into the [[Latin alphabet]].

Many of the new Hellenic cities became very rich and powerful, like ''Neapolis'' ([[Naples]]), ''[[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]]'', ''[[Akragas|Acragas]]'', and ''[[Sybaris]]''. Other cities in Magna Graecia included ''[[Taranto|Tarentum]]'', ''[[Locri|Epizephyrian Locri]]'', ''[[Rhegion|Rhegium]]'', ''[[Crotone|Croton]]'', ''[[Thurii]]'', ''[[Velia|Elea]]'', ''[[Nola]]'', ''[[Ancona]]'', ''[[Sessa Cilento|Syessa]]'', ''[[Bari]]'', and others.

After [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] failed to stop the spread of Roman hegemony in 282 BC, the south fell under Roman domination. It was held by the [[Byzantine Empire]] after the [[Decline of the Roman Empire|fall of Rome]] in [[Western Roman Empire|the West]] and even the [[Lombards]] failed to consolidate it, though the centre of the south was theirs from [[Zotto]]'s conquest in the final quarter of the 6th century.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zottóne duca di Benevento |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/zottone-duca-di-benevento |access-date=16 August 2023 |language=it}}</ref>