Editing Harran (section)

=== Ancient Near East (2500–539 BC) ===

==== Early history ====
[[File:Syria2mil.JPG|thumb|Harran and other major cities of ancient Syria]]
Harran is situated at an important geographical crossroad, both between the [[Euphrates]] and [[Tigris]] rivers and at the border between the ancient [[Mesopotamia]]n and [[Anatolian peoples|Anatolian]] cultures. The earliest known settlements in the region surrounding Harran date to 10000–8000 BC and settlements in its close vicinity are known to have existed by 6000&nbsp;BC.{{Sfn|Başaran|2011|p=544}} The region was linked to the [[Sumerians]], and was occupied by [[Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples|ancient Semitic-speaking people]] around 2750&nbsp;BC.{{Sfn|Binici|Binici|Akcan|Yardim|2020|p=1019}} The earliest written records concerning Harran suggest that the city itself was founded {{Circa}} 2500{{sfn|Özdeniz|Bekleyen|Gönül|Gönül|1998|p=478}}–2000 BC{{Sfn|Frew|1999}}{{Sfn|Green|1992|p=19}} as a merchant outpost by traders from the Sumerian city of [[Ur]].{{Sfn|Frew|1999}}{{Sfn|Green|1992|p=19}}

Harran was from early on associated with the Mesopotamian moon-god [[Sin (mythology)|Nanna]] (later known as Sin){{Sfn|Frew|1999}} and soon became regarded as a sacred city of the moon.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2003|pp=13–14}}{{Sfn|Pingree|2002|p=8}} The [[Ekhulkhul]] ("Temple of Rejoicing"),{{Sfn|Green|1992|p=21}} Harran's great moon temple, was already present in the city by {{Circa}} 2000&nbsp;BC.{{Sfn|Lloyd|Brice|Gadd|1951|p=|pp=87–88}} Sin was a major deity in Ur, which also housed his main temple,{{Sfn|Healey|2018|p=57}} but Harran's devotion to the moon can perhaps also be explained by its geography and climate. According to Donald Frew, the sun was a natural enemy in the hot and desolate landscape surrounding Harran whereas the night (and thus the moon) were more comforting.{{Sfn|Frew|1999}} The sun-god [[Shamash]] is however also thought to have had a temple in Harran. Another prominent deity in the city was Sin's son [[Nuska|Nusku]], the god of light.{{Sfn|Glassé|2003|p=171}}

Although next to nothing is known of the architecture and layout of Harran prior to the Middle Ages,{{Sfn|Bienkowski|Millard|2000|p=140}} the city is believed to have been designed according to a vaguely moon-shaped plan{{Sfn|Bosworth|2003|pp=13–14}} since Medieval sources allude to this. What kind of moon shape is meant by the sources is not clear.{{Sfn|Rice|1952|p=38}}

The religious authorities of Harran, speaking on behalf of Sin, were considered suitable guarantors and signatories in political treaties.

The first clear evidence about Harran comes from the inscribed clay tablets found at [[Ebla]], dating to the 24th century BC. These tablets provide good information about the social and administrative life of Harran during the Early [[Bronze Age]]. Harran is mentioned in the Ebla tablets together with the cities of Urshun and Irrite. At that time, Harran was ruled by a queen named Zugalum.<ref>[http://www.tayproject.org/TAYages.fm$Retrieve?CagNo=1267&html=ages_detail_e.html&layout=web Harran.] - tayproject.org</ref>

Already {{Circa}} 2000&nbsp;BC, a peace treaty was sealed in the Ekhulkhul between [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] and the [[Mari, Syria|Yaminites]], an [[Amorites|Amorite]] tribe. Further treaties signed that invoke Sin of Harran include a 14th-century&nbsp;BC treaty between [[Šuppiluliuma I]] of the Hittites and [[Shattiwaza]] of [[Mitanni]], and an 8th-century BC treaty between the Assyrian king [[Ashur-nirari V]] and [[Mati'ilu]] of [[Arpad, Syria|Arpad]].{{Sfn|Lloyd|Brice|Gadd|1951|p=|pp=87–88}}

Harran grew into a major Mesopotamian cultural, commercial and religious center.{{sfn|Özdeniz|Bekleyen|Gönül|Gönül|1998|p=478}} In addition to its religious importance, Harran was also important due to its strategic placement on an intersection of trade routes.{{Sfn|Lloyd|Brice|Gadd|1951|p=80}} Because Harran had an abundance of goods that passed through its region, it often became a target for raids.{{Sfn|Green|1992|pp=19–20}} In the 19th century BC, the lands surrounding Harran were occupied by confederations of semi-nomadic tribes.{{Sfn|Green|1992|p=19}} In the following century the [[Amorites|Amorite]] king [[Shamshi-Adad&nbsp;I]] ({{Reign|1808|1776}}&nbsp;BC) is recorded to have launched an expedition to conquer the region around Harran and secure the trade routes there from hostile forces.{{Sfn|Green|1992|pp=19–20}} After the fall of [[Shamshi-Adad I]]'s kingdom in the early 18th century BC, Harran was an independent [[city-state]] for a time; archives from Mari from the time of [[Zimri-Lim]] ({{Reign|1775|1761}}) record that Harran in his time was ruled by a king named [[Asdi-Takim]].{{Sfn|Holloway|1995|p=280}} Harran was later incorporated into the [[Mitanni]] kingdom in the 16th century BC.{{Sfn|Holloway|1995|p=280}}

==== Assyria and Babylonia ====
[[File:Harran Stela.png|thumb|The [[Harran Stela]], discovered at Harran in 1956, depicting the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Neo-Babylonian]] king [[Nabonidus]] ({{Reign|556|539}}&nbsp;BC)]]
Harran was conquered from Mitanni by the Assyrian king [[Adad-nirari&nbsp;I]] ({{Reign|1305|1274}}&nbsp;BC).{{Sfn|Frew|1999}}{{Sfn|Green|1992|p=20}} The city would not be firmly incorporated into [[Middle Assyrian Empire]] until the 1100s BC,{{Sfn|Sinclair|1990|p=29}} before which it was often occupied by [[Arameans]].{{Sfn|Glassé|2003|p=171}} Under Assyria, Harran grew into a fortified provincial capital second in importance only to the capital of [[Assur]] itself. In the 10th century, Harran was one of the few cities, along with Assur, to be exempt from needing to pay tribute to the Assyrian king{{Sfn|Lloyd|Brice|Gadd|1951|p=88}} and in the 9th and 8th centuries BC, Harran was made the seat of the ''[[turtanu]]'', the Assyrian commander-in-chief.{{Sfn|Green|1992|p=20}}

Since Harran was the sacred city of the moon-god, many Mesopotamian kings travelled there to receive the blessing and confirmation of their rule from the city's religious officials and in turn renovated and expanded Harran and its temples.{{Sfn|Frew|1999}} The Ekhulkhul was renovated twice in the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian period]] by the kings [[Shalmaneser III]] ({{Reign|859|824}} BC) and [[Ashurbanipal]] ({{Reign|669|631}}&nbsp;BC).{{Sfn|Pingree|2002|p=8}} Prophecies made by prophets and oracles of the moon cult of Harran were held in high regard; in the 670s BC the Harranians correctly prophesied that [[Esarhaddon]] ({{Reign|681|669}}&nbsp;BC) would conquer Egypt and [[Sasi (usurper)|Sasi]], a usurper proclaimed king by the [[Oracle of Nusku]] from Harran, managed to rally widespread support in the empire before he was defeated. The reign of Esarhaddon in particular marked the rise of the Ekhulkhul into one of the most prominent religious sanctuaries in the [[ancient Near East]], a position it would retain for centuries.{{Sfn|Radner|2003|pp=173–174}}

The Neo-Assyrian Empire was [[Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire|defeated]] in the late seventh century BC by the newly established [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] and the [[Medes]]. The Assyrian capital of [[Nineveh]] fell in 612&nbsp;BC but the remnants of the Assyrian army, led by Crown Prince [[Aššur-uballiṭ II]], rallied at Harran.{{Sfn|Radner|2019|pp=135–136}} Harran is therefore typically regarded as the short-lived final capital of ancient Assyria.{{Sfn|Leick|2009|p=83}}{{Sfn|Reade|2011|p=123}} Aššur-uballiṭ II underwent a coronation ceremony at Harran, being invested with rulership by Sin.{{Sfn|Radner|2019|pp=135–136}} After a long siege lasting from the winter of 610 BC to early 609&nbsp;BC, [[Fall of Harran|Harran was captured]] by the Babylonians and Medes, ending the Neo-Assyrian Empire.{{Sfn|Lipschits|2005|p=19}} The Ekhulkhul was destroyed by the Medes at this time{{Sfn|Lambert|1972|p=56}} and was neglected for many years{{sfn|Dalley|Reyes|Pingree|Salvesen|1998|pp=152–153}} but was eventually restored by the Neo-Babylonian king [[Nabonidus]] ({{Reign|556|539}} BC),{{Sfn|Pingree|2002|p=8}} who was from Harran.{{Sfn|Beaulieu|1989|p=76}} The city itself was also significantly revitalised in Nabonidus's reign.{{sfn|Hauser|2017|p=230}}