Editing Haakon IV (section)

==Reign==
===Succession struggle===
After King Inge's death in 1217, a succession dispute erupted. Haakon was supported by the majority of Birkebeiners, including the veterans who had served under his father and grandfather. Other candidates included Inge's illegitimate son Guttorm (who dropped out very soon); Inge's half-brother Earl [[Skule Bårdsson]], who had been appointed leader of the king's ''[[hird]]'' at Inge's deathbed and was supported by the [[Archdiocese of Nidaros|Archbishop of Nidaros]] as well as part of the Birkebeiners; and Haakon the Crazy's son, [[Knut Haakonsson]].<ref name="helle75">Helle, 1995, p. 75.</ref><ref name="keyser184">Keyser, 1870, p. 184.</ref><ref>Bagge, 1996, pp. 96–97.</ref> With his widespread popular support in [[Trøndelag]] and western Norway, Haakon was proclaimed king at [[Øyrating]] in June 1217. He was later the same year hailed as king at [[Gulating]] in Bergen, and at [[Haugating]], [[Borgarting]] and local [[Thing (assembly)|things]] east of [[Göta Älv|Elven]] (Göta Älv).<ref name="helle75"/> While Skule's supporters initially had attempted to cast doubt about Haakon's royal ancestry, they eventually suspended open resistance to his candidacy. As the dispute could have divided the Birkebeiners, Skule settled on becoming [[regent]] for Haakon during his minority.<ref name="helle75"/>
{{multiple image | width = 125 | align = right | footer=Two coins ([[bracteate]]s) from Haakon's reign. While a few of his coins included the inscription "REX HACV" (when with Earl Skule "REX ET COMES"), most only contained images of animals, a crowned head, a crown, a castle, or single letters.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dokpro.uio.no/umk_eng/myntherr/hh_hist.html |publisher=University of Oslo|title=Issuing Authorities: Håkon Håkonsson's coinage |access-date=22 April 2012 |year=1995 |work=University of Oslo's Coin Cabinet exhibition}}</ref> | image1 = Håkon IV 01.png | image2= Håkon IV 02.png }}

In connection with the dispute over the royal election, Haakon's mother Inga had to prove his parentage through a [[trial by ordeal]] in Bergen in 1218.<ref name="NBL"/> The result of the trial strengthened the legal basis for his kingship, and improved his relationship with the Church.<ref name="helle76">Helle, 1995, p. 76.</ref> The saga's claim that Haakon already had been generally accepted as king in 1217/18 has however been contested by modern historians such as [[Sverre Bagge]].<ref>Bagge, 1996, pp. 98–102.</ref> Skule and Haakon increasingly drifted apart in their administration, and Skule focused mainly on governing Eastern Norway after 1220, which he had gained the right to rule in 1218 as his third of the Norwegian kingdom.<ref name="NBL"/> From 1221 to 1223, Haakon and Skule separately issued letters as rulers of Norway, and maintained official contacts abroad.<ref>Bagge, 1996, p. 99.</ref> In 1223 a great meeting of bishops, clergy, secular nobles, and other high-ranking figures from all across the country was held in Bergen to decide finally on Haakon's right to the throne. Other candidates to the throne were present either personally or through attorneys, but Haakon was in the end unanimously confirmed as King of Norway by the court.<ref name="helle76"/>

The last Bagler king Philip Simonsson died in 1217. Speedy political and military manoeuvering by Skule led to a reconciliation between the Birkebeiners and Baglers, and thus the reunification of the kingdom.<ref>Helle, 1995, pp. 75–76.</ref> However, some discontented Baglers found a new royal pretender, [[Sigurd Ribbung]], and launched a new rising from 1219. The rising only gained support in parts of Eastern Norway, and was did not gain control of [[Viken, Norway|Viken]] and [[Oppland]]ene as the Baglers formerly had done.<ref name="helle77"/> In the summer of 1223, Skule forced the Ribbungar to surrender. However, The great meeting in Bergen soon after renewed the division of the Norwegian kingdom, with Skule gaining control of the northern third of the country instead of the east, in what marked a setback despite his military victory. In 1224, Sigurd escaped from Skule's custody, and Haakon was left to fight him alone as the new ruler of Eastern Norway. Skule remained passive throughout the rest of the war, and his support for Haakon was lukewarm at best.<ref name="bagge108109">Bagge, 1996, pp. 108–109.</ref> Assuming the military lead in the fight, Haakon nevertheless defeated Ribbung through comprehensive and organisationally demanding warfare over the next few years.<ref name="helle77"/> As part of the campaign, Haakon additionally led a large army into the [[Värmland]] district of Sweden in 1225, to punish the inhabitants for their support of Sigurd. Sigurd died in 1226, and the revolt was finally quashed in 1227 with the surrender of its last leader, Haakon the Crazy's son Knut Haakonsson.<ref>Bagge, 1996, pp. 129–130.</ref> This left Haakon more or less uncontested monarch.<ref name="helle77">Helle, 1995, p. 77.</ref>
[[File:HakonTheOldAndSkule-Flateyjarbok.jpg|thumb|220px|left|Haakon and Skule Bårdsson, from the 14th century Icelandic ''[[Flateyjarbók]]''.]]

Haakon's councillors had sought to reconcile Haakon and Skule by proposing marriage between Haakon and Skule's daughter [[Margaret Skulesdatter|Margaret]] in 1219. Haakon accepted the proposal (although he did not think it would change much politically), but the marriage between Haakon and Margrete did not take place before 1225, partly due to the conflict with Sigurd.<ref name="bagge108109"/> The relationship between Haakon and Skule nevertheless deteriorated further during the 1230s, and attempted settlements at meetings in 1233 and 1236 only distanced them more from each other.<ref name="helle180"/> Periodically, the two nonetheless reconciled and spent a great amount of time together, only to have their friendship destroyed - according to the saga, by intrigues derived from rumours and slander by men who played the two against each other.<ref>Bagge, 1996, pp. 110–111.</ref> Skule was the first person in Norway to be titled duke (''hertug'') in 1237, but instead of control over a region, gained the rights to the incomes from a third of the ''[[Counties of Norway|syssels]]'' scattered across the whole of Norway. This was part of an attempt by Haakon to limit Skule's power. In 1239 the conflict between the two erupted into open warfare when Skule had himself proclaimed king. Although he had some support in Trøndelag, Opplandene, and eastern Viken, he could not stand up to Haakon's forces.<ref name="helle180">Helle, 1995, p. 180.</ref> The rebellion ended when Skule was killed in 1240, leaving Haakon the undisputed king of Norway.<ref name="NBL"/> This revolt is generally taken to mark the final end of Norway's civil war era.<ref name="helle77"/>

===Recognition by the Pope===
{{multiple image
 | direction         = vertical
 | width             = 100
 | image1            = Arms of Haakon IV of Norway.svg
 | image2            = Arms of Haakon IV of Norway (Historia Anglorum).svg
 | footer            = [[Coats of arms]] accorded to Haakon by [[Matthew Paris]].<ref>Lewis, 1987, pp. 456, 467.</ref>
}}
While the Church in Norway initially had refused to recognise Haakon as King of Norway, it had largely turned to support his claim to the throne by the 1223 meeting, although later disagreements occurred.<ref>Bagge, 1996, pp. 119–120.</ref> Despite being the undisputed ruler of Norway after 1240, Haakon was still not approved as king by the pope due to his illegitimate birth. He nonetheless had a strong personal desire to be approved fully as a European king.<ref name="NBL"/> Several papal commissions were appointed to investigate the matter, and Haakon declared his legitimate son Haakon the Young his successor instead of an older living illegitimate son.<ref name="helle180"/> Although Haakon had children with his mistress Kanga the Young prior to his marriage with Margrete, it was his children with Margrete who were designated as his successors in accordance with a papal recognition. The Catholic principle of [[Legitimacy (family law)|legitimacy]] was thus established in the Norwegian order of succession, although Haakon's new law still maintained that illegitimate children could be designated as successor in the absence of any legitimate children or grandchildren—contrary to Catholic principles. While his strong position allowed him to set boundaries to the Church's political influence, he was on the other hand prepared to give the Church much autonomy in internal affairs and relations with the rural society.<ref name="NBL"/><ref>Helle, 1995, pp. 181–183.</ref>

Haakon also attempted to strengthen his ties with the papacy by taking a vow to go on [[Crusade]].<ref name="NBL"/> In 1241 he converted this into a vow of waging war against pagan peoples in the north in light of the [[Mongol invasion of Europe]]. When a group of [[Karelians]] ("Bjarmians") had been forced westwards by the Mongols, Haakon allowed them to stay in the area surrounding the [[Malangen (fjord)|Malangen]] fjord and had them Christianized—something that would please the papacy.<ref name="helle198"/> Later, in 1248, [[Louis IX of France]] proposed (by Matthew Paris as messenger) to Haakon to join him for a Crusade, with Haakon as commander of the fleet, but Haakon declined.<ref name="helle199">Helle, 1995, p. 199.</ref> While Haakon had been unsuccessful in gaining the recognition of [[Pope Gregory IX]], he quickly gained the support from [[Pope Innocent IV]] who sought alliances in his struggle with [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]]. Haakon finally achieved royal recognition by Pope Innocent in 1246, and [[Cardinal William of Sabina]] was sent to Bergen and crowned Haakon in 1247.<ref>Helle, 1995, pp. 180–181.</ref>

=== Conflict with the hanseatic league ===
In 1247 a ship from [[History_of_the_Free_and_Hanseatic_City_of_Lübeck|Lübeck]] was wrecked and plundered near [[Tønsberg]], in response Lübeck confiscated Norwegian merchants goods. King Håkon responded by seizing Wendish cogs that were moored in Bergen<ref>https://www.hansischergeschichtsverein.de/file/qud70_volltext_hq.pdf</ref>
===Cultural influence and legal reforms===
[[File:Haakonshallen Bergen Norway 2009 1.JPG|thumb|left|[[Haakon's Hall]] in Bergen, constructed in the mid-13th century.]]
After consolidating his position in 1240, Haakon focused on displaying the supremacy of the kingship, influenced by the increasingly closer contact with European culture. He built several monumental royal buildings, primarily in the [[Bergenhus Fortress|royal estate in Bergen]], where he built a European-style stone palace. He used a grand fleet with stately royal ships when meeting with other Scandinavian rulers, and actively sent letters and gifts to other European rulers; his most far-reaching contact was achieved when he sent [[gyrfalcon]]s with an embassy to the sultan of [[Tunis]].<ref name="NBL"/>

The royal court in Bergen also started importing and translating the first true European literature that became available to a wider Norwegian audience. The literature which was popular then was heroic-romantic literature derived from the French and, in turn, English courts, notably ''[[chansons de geste]]'' around [[Charlemagne]] (the [[Matter of France]]) and tales of [[King Arthur]] (the [[Matter of Britain]]). The first work that was translated into [[Old Norse]] was reportedly the Arthurian romantic story ''[[Tristan and Iseult]]'', which was finished in 1226 after orders from the young and newly-wed Haakon. Haakon's programme seems to have been the spark for the emergence of a new Norse genre of [[chivalric sagas]].<ref name="Helle, 1995, pp. 171–172">Helle, 1995, pp. 171–172.</ref>

Haakon also had the popular religious text ''[[Visio Tnugdali]]'' translated into Old Norse as ''Duggals leiðsla''. The literature also appealed to women, and both Haakon's wife Margrete and his daughter Kristina owned richly illustrated [[psalter]]s.<ref name="Helle, 1995, pp. 171–172"/>

Haakon also initiated legal reforms which were crucial for the development of justice in Norway. Haakon's "New Law", written around 1260, was a breakthrough for both the idea and practice of public justice, as opposed to the traditional Norwegian customs of feuds and revenge. The influence of the reforms is also apparent in Haakon's ''[[Konungs skuggsjá]]'' ("King's Mirror"), an educational text intended for his son Magnus, which was probably written in cooperation with the royal court in the mid-1250s.<ref>Bagge, 1996, pp. 149–150.</ref>

===Involvements abroad===
Relations were hostile with both Sweden and Denmark from the start of his reign. During Haakon's rivalry with Earl Skule, Skule sought the support of [[Valdemar II of Denmark]], but any aid was made impossible after Valdemar's capture by one of his vassals. Since the Danes wanted overlordship of Norway and supported the [[Guelphs and Ghibellines|Guelphs]] (those supporting the Pope over the Holy Roman Emperor), Haakon in turn sought closer ties with the Ghibelline Emperor Frederick II, who sent ambassadors to Norway. As Haakon had gained a powerful reputation due to the strength of his fleet, other European rulers wanted to benefit from his friendship. Despite the struggle between the Pope and the Emperor, Haakon was able to maintain friendships with both. According to an English chronicler, the Pope wanted Haakon to become Holy Roman Emperor.<ref>Per G. Norseng: [http://snl.no/H%C3%A5kon_4_H%C3%A5konsson_%28den_gamle%29 Håkon 4 Håkonsson] (in [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]) [[Store Norske Leksikon]], retrieved 18 March 2013</ref> It has been suggested that Haakon hesitated to leave Norway due to the Mongol threat.<ref>Orfield & Boyer, 2002, pp. 137–138.</ref>

Haakon pursued a foreign policy that was active in all directions (although foremost to the west and south-east).<ref name="helle197"/> In the north-east, the relationship with [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]] had been tense due to a dispute over the right to tax the [[Sami people]], as well as raiding from both Norwegian and Karelian sides. Eventually, the [[Mongol invasion of Rus']] drove Prince [[Alexander Nevsky]] to negotiations with Haakon that likely strengthened Norwegian control of [[Troms]] and [[Finnmark]].<ref name="helle198">Helle, 1995, p. 198.</ref> An embassy from Novgorod one time asked for the hand of Haakon's daughter [[Christina of Norway, Infanta of Castile|Christina]], but Haakon refused due to the Mongol threat.<ref>Bagge, 1996, pp. 121–122.</ref> With Norwegian ships from the port of Elven were active in the waters south of Sweden and into the [[Baltic Sea]], Norway increasingly relied on Baltic grain from [[Free City of Lübeck|Lübeck]]. This trade was halted in the late 1240s by the plundering of Norwegian ships in Danish seas by ships from Lübeck. In 1250, Haakon made a peace and trade agreement with Lübeck, which eventually also opened the city of Bergen to the [[Hanseatic League]].<ref name="NBL"/><ref name="helle197">Helle, 1995, p. 197.</ref> During the conflict, Haakon had reportedly been offered control over the city by Emperor Frederick II.<ref name="helle198">Helle, 1995, p. 198.</ref> In any case, Haakon's policy regarding Northern German ports largely derived from his strategy of attempting to exploit the internal turmoil in Denmark after the death of King Valdemar II in 1241.<ref name="helle197"/>

In Scandinavia, Haakon regularly met with neighbouring rulers in the border-area around Elven from the late 1240s through the 1250s. He sent grand fleets as embassies; some reportedly numbered over 300 ships.<ref name="helle197"/> Haakon also reconciled with the Swedes when he his son Haakon the Young married [[Rikissa Birgersdotter|Rikissa]], a daughter of Swedish leader [[Birger Jarl|Earl Birger]].<ref name="OrfBoy138"/> Haakon sought to expand his kingdom southwards of Elven into the Danish province of [[Halland]]. He thus looked for alliance with the Swedes, as well as ties with opponents of the ruling line of monarchs of Denmark. In 1249, Haakon allied with  Earl Birger for a joint Swedish-Norwegian invasion into Halland and [[Scania]], but the agreement was eventually abandoned by the Swedes (''see'' [[Treaty of Lödöse]]). Haakon claimed Halland in 1253, and finally invaded the province on his own in 1256, demanding it as compensation for the looting of Norwegian ships in Danish seas. But he renounced this claim in a 1257 peace agreement with [[Christopher I of Denmark]]. Haakon thereafter negotiated a marriage between his only remaining son, Magnus, and Christopher's niece [[Ingeborg of Denmark, Queen of Norway|Ingeborg]].<ref>Helle, 1995, pp. 197–198.</ref> Haakon's Nordic policies initiated the build-up to the later [[personal union]]s (called the [[Kalmar Union]]), that in the end had dire consequences for Norway as it did not have the economic and military resources to persevere and maintain Haakon's aggressive policies.<ref name="NBL"/>

More distantly, Haakon sought an alliance with [[Alfonso X of Castile]] (a potential next Holy Roman emperor) chiefly as it would guarantee new supplies of grain to Castile in light of rising prices in [[Kingdom of England|England]], and possibly giving access to Baltic grain through Norwegian control of Lübeck. Alfonso in turn sought to expand his influence in Northern Europe, as well as to gain Norwegian naval assistance for the campaign or crusade he had proposed in Morocco<ref name="josoc17"/><ref>O'Callaghan, 1993, p. 202.</ref> (seeing that the [[Al-Andalus|Iberian Moors]] received backing overseas from North Africa).<ref name="helle198"/> Haakon could thus potentially also fulfill his papal vow of crusade, although he likely did not intend to.<ref name="josoc17">O'Callaghan, 2011, p. 17.</ref> He sent an embassy to Castile in 1255. A Castilian ambassador to Norway returned with the embassy, and proposed to establish the "strongest ties of friendship" with Haakon.<ref name="josoc203"/> At the request of Alfonso, Haakon sent his daughter Christina to Castile to marry one of Alfonso's brothers. However, Christina died four years later without children, which marked the effective end of the short-lived alliance,<ref name="josoc17"/><ref name="josoc203">O'Callaghan, 1993, p. 203.</ref> and the proposed crusade fell into the blue.<ref name="helle199"/>

===The Scottish expedition and death===
[[File:Norwegian Hereditary Empire excluding Greenland.png|thumb|left|280px|Medieval Norway at its greatest extent, around the time of Haakon's death.]]
Haakon employed an active and aggressive foreign policy to strengthen Norwegian ties in the west.<ref name="helle194">Helle, 1995, p. 194.</ref> His policy relied on friendship and trade with the King of England; the first known Norwegian trade agreements were made with England in the years 1217–23 (England's first commercial treaties were also made with Norway), and the friendship with [[Henry III of England]] was a cornerstone of Haakon's foreign policy.<ref>Helle, 1995, pp. 194–195.</ref><ref name="OrfBoy137">Orfield & Boyer, 2002, p. 137.</ref> As they had become kings around the same time, Haakon wrote to Henry in 1224 that he wished they could maintain the friendship that had existed between their fathers.<ref>{{cite web|title=Diplomatarium Norvegicum XIX|page=117|publisher=University of Oslo|url=http://www.dokpro.uio.no/perl/middelalder/diplom_vise_tekst.prl?b=16109&s=n&str=|work=Dokumentasjonsprosjektet|access-date=12 April 2012|language=no}}</ref> Haakon sought to defend the Norwegian sovereignty over islands in the west, namely the [[Hebrides]] and [[Isle of Man|Man]] (under the [[Kingdom of the Isles|Kingdom of Mann and the Isles]]), [[Shetland]] and [[Orkney]] (under the [[Earldom of Orkney]]), and the [[Faroe Islands]].<ref name="NBL"/> Further, the Norse community in Greenland agreed to submit to the Norwegian crown in 1261, and in 1262 Haakon achieved one of his long-standing ambitions when he incorporated [[Icelandic Commonwealth|Iceland]] into his kingdom by exploiting the island's internal conflicts in his favour. The dependency on Norwegian maritime trade and their subordination to the [[Archdiocese of Nidaros#Nidaros ecclesiastical province|Nidaros ecclesiastical province]] were some of the key reasons which allowed Haakon to assert sovereignty over the islands.<ref>Helle, 1995, pp. 195–196.</ref> The Norwegian kingdom was at the largest it has ever been by the end of Haakon's reign.<ref name="NBL"/>

Norwegian control over the Faroe Islands and Shetland was strong due to the importance of Bergen as a trading centre, while Orkney, the Hebrides, and Man had more natural ties with the Scottish mainland. Although traditionally having had ties with the [[Scandinavian Scotland|community of Norse settlers in northern Scotland]], Scottish rulers had increasingly asserted their sovereignty over the entire mainland.<ref>Derry, 2000, p. 48.</ref> Haakon had at the same time gained stronger control of the Hebrides and Man than any Norwegian ruler since [[Magnus III of Norway|Magnus Barefoot]].<ref name="helle196">Helle, 1995, p. 196.</ref> As part of a new development the Scottish king [[Alexander II of Scotland|Alexander II]] claimed the Hebrides and asked to buy the islands from Norway, but Haakon staunchly rejected the proposals. Following Alexander II's death, his son [[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]] continued and stepped up his father's policy by sending an embassy to Norway in 1261, and thereafter attacking the Hebrides.<ref>Bagge, 1996, p. 126.</ref>

In 1263, the [[Scottish–Norwegian War|dispute with the Scottish king]] over the Hebrides induced Haakon to undertake an expedition to the islands. Haakon learned in 1262 that Scottish nobles had raided the Hebrides and that Alexander III planned to conquer the islands. In 1263 Haakon mounted an expedition with his formidable ''[[leidang]]'' fleet of at least 120 ships.<ref name="helle196"/> He had become accustomed to negotiating while backed by an intimidating fleet.<ref name="helle197"/> The fleet left Bergen in July, and reached Shetland and Orkney in August, where they were joined by chieftains from the Hebrides and Man. Alexander started negotiations after Norwegian landings on the Scottish mainland, but the Scots purposely prolonged the talks.<ref name="helle196"/> The Scots waited until September and October for weather that would be trouble for Haakon's fleet. A Scottish force met a smaller Norwegian force at the [[Battle of Largs]] (2 October). Although the battle was inconclusive, Haakon withdrew to Orkney for the winter.<ref name="helle196"/><ref>Derry, 2000, p. 49.</ref> A delegation of Irish kings invited Haakon to become the [[High King of Ireland]] and expel the [[Lordship of Ireland|Anglo-Norman settlers]] in Ireland, but this was apparently rejected against Haakon's wish.<ref>Barrow, 1981 p. 118.</ref><ref>Lydon, 1998, p. 78.</ref><ref>Fry & Fry, 1991, p. 85.</ref>

Haakon over-wintered at the [[Bishop's Palace, Kirkwall|Bishop's Palace in Kirkwall, Orkney]], with plans to resume his campaign the next year.<ref name="FOP262">Forte, Oram, & Pedersen, 2005, p. 262.</ref> During his stay in Kirkwall he however fell ill, and died in the early hours of 16 December 1263.<ref>Helle, 1995, p. 173.</ref><ref>Barrow, 1981 p. 119.</ref> Haakon was buried in the [[St Magnus Cathedral]] in Kirkwall for the winter; in spring, his body was exhumed and taken back to Norway,<ref name="FOP262"/> where he was buried in the Old Cathedral in his capital Bergen.<ref name="NBL"/> Centuries later, in 1531, the cathedral was demolished by the commander of [[Bergenhus]], [[Eske Bille]], for military purposes<ref>{{cite web|url=http://snl.no/Eske_Bille|title=Eske Bille|publisher=[[Store norske leksikon]]|access-date=26 April 2012|language=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://snl.no/.nbl_biografi/Tord_Roed/utdypning|title=Tord Roed|publisher=[[Store norske leksikon]]|work=[[Norsk biografisk leksikon]]|access-date=26 April 2012|language=no}}</ref> in connection with the [[Reformation in Denmark–Norway and Holstein|Protestant Reformation]], and the graves of Haakon and other Norwegian kings buried there might have been destroyed in the process or moved to another location.<ref name="NBL"/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/iriks/article1470628.ece|work=[[Aftenposten]]|title=En norsk kongegrav|first=Cato|last=Guhnfeldt|language=no|date=19 October 2011|access-date=12 April 2012}}</ref>