Editing Gladiator (section)

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In 216 BC, [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (consul 232 BC)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]], late [[Roman consul|consul]] and [[augur]], was honoured by his sons with three days of ''munera gladiatoria'' in the [[Forum Romanum]], using twenty-two pairs of gladiators.<ref>{{harvnb|Welch|2007|p=21}}. Welch is citing Livy, 23.30.15. The Aemilii Lepidii were one of the most important families in Rome at the time, and probably owned a gladiator school (''ludus'').</ref> Ten years later, [[Scipio Africanus]] gave a commemorative ''munus'' in Iberia for his father and uncle, casualties in the Punic Wars. High status non-Romans, and possibly Romans too, volunteered as his gladiators.<ref name="Futrell, 8-9">{{harvnb|Futrell|2006|pp=8–9}}.</ref> The context of the [[Punic Wars]] and Rome's near-disastrous defeat at the [[Battle of Cannae]] (216 BC) link these early games to munificence, the celebration of military victory and the religious expiation of military disaster; these ''munera'' appear to serve a morale-raising agenda in an era of military threat and expansion.<ref>{{harvnb|Futrell|2006|p=30}}.</ref> The next recorded ''munus'', held for the funeral of [[Publius Licinius Crassus Dives (consul 205 BC)|Publius Licinius]] in 183 BC, was more extravagant. It involved three days of funeral games, 120 gladiators, and public distribution of meat (''visceratio data'')<ref>Livy, 39.46.2.</ref>—a practice that reflected the gladiatorial fights at Campanian banquets described by Livy and later deplored by Silius Italicus.<ref>Silius Italicus quoted in {{harvnb|Futrell|2006|pp=4–5}}.</ref>

The enthusiastic adoption of ''munera gladiatoria'' by Rome's Iberian allies shows how easily, and how early, the culture of the gladiator ''munus'' permeated places far from Rome itself. By 174 BC, "small" Roman ''munera'' (private or public), provided by an ''[[wikt:editor#Latin|editor]]'' of relatively low importance, may have been so commonplace and unremarkable they were not considered worth recording:<ref>{{harvnb|Welch|2007|p=21}}.</ref>

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Many gladiatorial games were given in that year, some unimportant, one noteworthy beyond the rest—that of [[Titus Quinctius Flamininus|Titus Flamininus]] which he gave to commemorate the death of his father, which lasted four days, and was accompanied by a public distribution of meats, a banquet, and scenic performances. The climax of the show which was big for the time was that in three days seventy four gladiators fought.<ref>Livy, ''Annal for the Year 174 BC'' (cited in {{harvnb|Welch|2007|p=21}}).</ref>
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In 105 BC, the ruling consuls offered Rome its first taste of state-sponsored "[[barbarian]] combat" demonstrated by gladiators from Capua, as part of a training program for the military. It proved immensely popular.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{harvnb|Wiedemann|1992|pp=6–7}}. Wiedemann is citing Valerius Maximus, 2.3.2.</ref> Thereafter, the gladiator contests formerly restricted to private ''munera'' were often included in the state games (''[[ludi]]'')<ref>The games were always referred to in the plural, as ''ludi''. Gladiator schools were also known as ''ludi'' when plural; a single school was ''ludus''</ref> that accompanied the major religious festivals. Where traditional ''ludi'' had been dedicated to a deity, such as [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], the ''munera'' could be dedicated to an aristocratic sponsor's divine or heroic ancestor.<ref name="Lintott 2004 183">{{harvnb|Lintott|2004|p=183}}.</ref>