Editing Gilgamesh (section)

==Deification and legendary exploits==
===Sumerian poems===
[[File:Gilgamesh in a Sculptured Vase, Shara Temple, Tell Agrab, Iraq.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Sculpted scene depicting Gilgamesh wrestling with animals. From the Shara temple at [[Tell Agrab]], Diyala Region, Iraq. [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)|Early Dynastic Period]], 2600–2370 BC. On display at the [[National Museum of Iraq]] in [[Baghdad]].]]
[[File:Mace dedicated to Gigamesh-AO 3761 with transcription of the name Gilgamesh.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Mace dedicated to Gilgamesh, with transcription of the name Gilgamesh ({{cuneiform|6|𒀭𒉈𒂵𒈩}}) in standard Sumero-Akkadian [[cuneiform]], [[Ur III]] period, between 2112 and 2004 BC]]
It is certain that, during the later [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)|Early Dynastic Period]], Gilgamesh was worshiped as a god at various locations across Sumer.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=89}} In the 21st century BC, King [[Utu-hengal]]  of Uruk adopted Gilgamesh as his patron deity.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=89}} The kings of the [[Third Dynasty of Ur]] ({{circa|2112|2004 BC}}) were especially fond of Gilgamesh,{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=89}}{{sfn|Mark|2018}} calling him their "divine brother" and "friend."{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=89}} King [[Shulgi]] of Ur (2029–1982 BC) declared himself the son of [[Lugalbanda]] and [[Ninsun]] and the brother of Gilgamesh.{{sfn|Mark|2018}} Over the centuries, there may have been a gradual accretion of stories about Gilgamesh, some possibly derived from the real lives of other historical figures, such as [[Gudea]], the Second Dynasty ruler of [[Lagash]] (2144–2124 BC).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sandars |first=N.K. |title=The Epic of Gilgamesh |date=1972 |publisher=Penguin |chapter=Introduction |author-link=N.K. Sandars}}</ref> Prayers inscribed on clay tablets address Gilgamesh as a judge of the dead in the Underworld.{{sfn|Mark|2018}}

==== "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld" ====
{{Main|Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld}}
During this period, a large number of myths and legends developed surrounding Gilgamesh.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=89}}{{sfn|Kramer|1963|page=45}}{{sfn|George|2003b|page=141}}<ref name="Norton Anthology" />{{rp|95}} Five independent Sumerian poems  have been discovered narrating his exploits.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=89}} Gilgamesh's first appearance in literature is probably in the Sumerian poem "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld".{{sfn|Kramer|1961|page=30}}{{sfn|Mark|2018}}<ref>[[Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature|ETCSL]] [http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr1814.htm 1.8.1.4]</ref> The narrative begins with a ''huluppu'' tree—perhaps, according to the Sumerologist [[Samuel Noah Kramer]], a willow,{{sfn|Kramer|1961|page=33}} growing on the banks of the river [[Euphrates]].{{sfn|Kramer|1961|page=33}}{{sfn|Mark|2018}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=172}} The goddess Inanna moves the tree to her garden in [[Uruk]] with the intention to carve it into a throne once it is fully grown.{{sfn|Kramer|1961|page=33}}{{sfn|Mark|2018}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=172}} The tree grows and matures, but the serpent "who knows no charm," the ''[[Anzû (mythology)|Anzû]]''-bird, and ''[[Lilitu]]'', a [[Mesopotamian demon]], invade the tree, causing Inanna to cry with sorrow.{{sfn|Kramer|1961|page=33}}{{sfn|Mark|2018}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=172}}

Gilgamesh, who in this story is portrayed as Inanna's brother, slays the serpent, causing the ''Anzû''-bird and Lilitu to flee.{{sfn|Kramer|1961|pages=33–34}}{{sfn|Mark|2018}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=172}} Gilgamesh's companions chop down the tree and carve it into a bed and a throne for Inanna.{{sfn|Wolkstein|Kramer|1983|page=140}}{{sfn|Mark|2018}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=172}} The goddess responds by fashioning a ''pikku'' and a ''mikku'' (perhaps a drum and drumsticks){{sfn|Kramer|1961|page=34}}{{sfn|Mark|2018}} as a reward for Gilgamesh's heroism.{{sfn|Wolkstein|Kramer|1983|page=9}}{{sfn|Mark|2018}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=172}} But Gilgamesh loses the ''pikku'' and ''mikku'' and asks who will retrieve them.{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|pages=172–173}} His servant Enkidu descends to the Underworld to find them,{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=173}} but he disobeys its strict laws and can never  return.{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=173}} In the remaining dialog, Gilgamesh questions the [[Shade (mythology)|shade]] of his lost comrade about the Underworld.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=89}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|pages=172–173}}

==== Subsequent poems ====
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=340|caption_align=center
| align    = right
| direction =horizontal
| header=Story of Gilgamesh and Aga
| image1   = Obverse. Gilgamesh and Aga. Old Babylonian period, from southern Iraq. Sulaymaniyah Museum, Iraqi Kurdistan.jpg
| image2   = Reverse. Gilgamesh and Aga. Old Babylonian period, from southern Iraq. Sulaymaniyah Museum, Iraqi Kurdistan.jpg
| footer=Story of ''"[[Siege of Uruk|Gilgamesh and Agga]]"''. Old Babylonian period, from southern Iraq. [[Sulaymaniyah Museum]], Iraq
}}
''[[Siege of Uruk|Gilgamesh and Agga]]'' describes Gilgamesh's successful revolt against his liege lord [[Aga of Kish|Agga]], king of the city-state of [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]].{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=89}}<ref>ETCSL [http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr1811.htm 1.8.1.1]</ref> ''Gilgamesh and Huwawa'' describes how Gilgamesh and his servant [[Enkidu]], with the help of fifty volunteers from Uruk, defeat the monster [[Huwawa]], an ogre appointed as guardian of the [[Cedar Forest]] by the ruling god [[Enlil]].{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=89}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=167}}<ref>ETCSL [http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr1815.htm 1.8.1.5]</ref>

In ''Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven'', Gilgamesh and Enkidu slay the [[Bull of Heaven]], who has been sent to attack them by the goddess [[Inanna]].{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=89}}{{sfn|Tigay|2002|page=24}}<ref>ETCSL [http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr1812.htm 1.8.1.2]</ref> The details of this poem differ substantially from the corresponding episode in the later Akkadian ''Epic of Gilgamesh''.{{sfn|Tigay|2002|pages=24–25}} In the Sumerian poem, Inanna remains aloof from Gilgamesh, but in the Akkadian epic she asks him to become her consort.{{sfn|Tigay|2002|page=24}} Also, while pressing her father [[Anu|An]] to give her the Bull of Heaven, in  Sumerian Inanna threatens a deafening cry that will reach the earth, while in Akkadian she threatens to [[Undead|wake the dead]] to eat the living.{{sfn|Tigay|2002|pages=24–25}}

A poem known as ''The Death of Gilgamesh'' is poorly preserved, but appears to describe a major state funeral followed by the arrival of the deceased in the Underworld. The poem may have been misinterpreted, and may actually depict the death of Enkidu.<ref>ETCSL [http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr1813.htm 1.8.1.3]</ref>{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=89}}

===''Epic of Gilgamesh''===
{{main|Epic of Gilgamesh}}
{{multiple image
| align     = right
| direction = horizontal
| header   =
| total_width  =340
<!-- Image 1 -->
| image1    = Humbaba deamon-AO 9034-IMG 0655-black.jpg
| alt1      =
| caption1  = The ogre [[Humbaba]], shown in this [[terracotta]] plaque from the [[First Babylonian dynasty|Old Babylonian Period]],{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=109}} is one of the opponents fought by Gilgamesh and his companion [[Enkidu]] in the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]''.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}}
<!-- Image 2 -->
| image2    = O.1054 color.jpg
| alt2      =
| caption2  = Ancient Mesopotamian terracotta relief ({{circa}} 2250–1900 BC) showing Gilgamesh slaying the [[Bull of Heaven]],{{sfn|Powell|2012|page=342}} an episode described in Tablet VI of the ''Epic of Gilgamesh''{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}}{{sfn|Powell|2012|pages=341–343}}
}}

Eventually, according to Kramer (1963):{{sfn|Kramer|1963|page=45}}

{{quote|Gilgamesh became the hero par excellence of the ancient world—an adventurous, brave, but tragic figure symbolizing man's vain but endless drive for fame, glory, and immortality.}}

By the [[First Babylonian dynasty|Old Babylonian Period]] ({{circa|1830|1531 BC}}), stories of Gilgamesh's legendary exploits had been woven into one or several long epics.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=89}} The ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the most complete account of Gilgamesh's adventures, was composed in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] during the [[Kassites|Middle Babylonian Period]] ({{circa}} 1600 – {{circa}} 1155 BC) by a scribe named [[Sîn-lēqi-unninni]].{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=89}} The most complete surviving version of the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'' is recorded on a set of twelve clay tablets dating to the seventh century BC, found in the [[Library of Ashurbanipal]] in the [[Assyria]]n capital of [[Nineveh]],{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=89}}{{sfn|Mark|2018}}{{sfn|Rybka|2011|pages=257–258}} with many pieces missing or damaged.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=89}}{{sfn|Mark|2018}}{{sfn|Rybka|2011|pages=257–258}} Some scholars and translators choose to supplement the missing parts with material from the earlier Sumerian poems or from other versions of the epic found at other sites throughout the [[Near East]].{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=89}}

[[File:Tablet V of the Epic of Gligamesh.JPG|right|thumb|upright|Tablet V of the ''Epic of Gilgamesh''. [[Sulaymaniyah Museum|The Sulaymaniyah Museum]], Iraq]]

In the epic, Gilgamesh is introduced as "two thirds divine and one third mortal".{{sfn|Powell|2012|page=339}} At the beginning of the poem, Gilgamesh is described as a brutal, oppressive ruler.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=89}}{{sfn|Powell|2012|page=339}} This is usually interpreted to mean either forced labor or sexual exploitation.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=89}} As punishment for his cruelty, the god [[Anu]] creates the wild man Enkidu.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|pages=89–90}} After being tamed by a prostitute named [[Shamhat]], Enkidu journeys to Uruk to confront Gilgamesh.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}} In the second tablet, the two men wrestle and though Gilgamesh wins in the end,{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}} he is so impressed by his opponent's strength and tenacity that they become close friends.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}} In the earlier Sumerian texts, Enkidu is Gilgamesh's servant,{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}} but, in the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'', they are companions of equal standing.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}}

In tablets III through IV, Gilgamesh and Enkidu travel to the [[Cedar Forest]], which is guarded by Humbaba (the Akkadian name for Huwawa).{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}} The heroes cross the seven mountains to the Cedar Forest, where they begin chopping down trees.{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=168}} Confronted by Humbaba, Gilgamesh panics and prays to [[Utu|Shamash]] (the East Semitic name for Utu),{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=168}} who blows eight winds in Humbaba's eyes, blinding him.{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=168}} Humbaba begs for mercy, but the heroes decapitate him.{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=168}} Tablet VI begins with Gilgamesh returning to Uruk,{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}} where [[Ishtar]] (the Akkadian name for Inanna) comes to him and demands him as her consort.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=168}}{{sfn|Pryke|2017|pages=140–159}} Gilgamesh rejects her, reproaching her mistreatment of all her former lovers.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=168}}{{sfn|Pryke|2017|pages=140–159}}

In revenge, Ishtar goes to her father [[Anu]] and demands that he give her the Bull of Heaven,{{sfn|Dalley|1989|pages=81–82}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|pages=168–169}}{{sfn|Tigay|2002|pages=24–25}} which she sends to attack Gilgamesh.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}}{{sfn|Dalley|1989|pages=81–82}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|pages=168–169}}{{sfn|Tigay|2002|pages=24–25}} Gilgamesh and Enkidu kill the Bull and offer its heart to Shamash.{{sfn|Dalley|1989|page=82}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|pages=168–169}} While Gilgamesh and Enkidu are resting, Ishtar stands up on the walls of [[Uruk]] and curses Gilgamesh.{{sfn|Dalley|1989|page=82}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=169}} Enkidu tears off the Bull's right thigh and throws it in Ishtar's face,{{sfn|Dalley|1989|page=82}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=169}} saying, "If I could lay my hands on you, it is this I should do to you, and lash your entrails to your side."{{sfn|George|2003b|page=88}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=169}} Ishtar calls together "the crimped courtesans, prostitutes and harlots"{{sfn|Dalley|1989|page=82}} and orders them to mourn for the Bull of Heaven.{{sfn|Dalley|1989|page=82}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=169}} Meanwhile, Gilgamesh holds a celebration over the Bull's defeat.{{sfn|Dalley|1989|page=82–83}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=169}}

Tablet VII begins with Enkidu recounting a [[Precognition|dream]] in which he saw Anu, [[Enki|Ea]], and Shamash declare that either Gilgamesh or Enkidu must die to avenge the Bull of Heaven.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}} They choose Enkidu, who soon grows sick.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}} He has a dream of the Underworld, and then dies.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}} Tablet VIII describes Gilgamesh's inconsolable grief for his friend{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=171}} and the details of Enkidu's funeral.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}} Tablets IX through XI relate how Gilgamesh, driven by grief and fear of his own mortality, travels a great distance and overcomes many obstacles to find the home of [[Utnapishtim]], the sole survivor of the [[Gilgamesh flood myth|Great Flood]], who was rewarded with immortality by the gods.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=171}}

[[File:Mesopotamian - Cylinder Seal with Scorpion Man Shooting at Winged Creatures - Walters 42807.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|left|Early [[Middle Assyrian Empire|Middle Assyrian]] [[cylinder seal]] impression dating between 1400 and 1200 BC, showing a man with bird wings and a scorpion tail firing an arrow at a [[griffin]] on a [[hillock]]. A [[scorpion man]] is among the creatures Gilgamesh encounters on his journey to the homeland of [[Utnapishtim]].{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=171}}]]

The journey to Utnapishtim involves a series of episodic challenges, which probably originated as major independent adventures,{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=171}} but, in the epic, they are reduced to what [[Joseph Fontenrose|Joseph Eddy Fontenrose]] calls "fairly harmless incidents".{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=171}} First, Gilgamesh encounters and slays lions in the mountain pass.{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=171}} Upon reaching the mountain of [[Mashu]], Gilgamesh encounters a [[scorpion man]] and his wife;{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=171}} their bodies flash with terrifying radiance,{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=171}} but once Gilgamesh tells them his purpose, they allow him to pass.{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=171}} Gilgamesh wanders through darkness for twelve days before he finally comes into the light.{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=171}} He finds a beautiful garden by the sea in which he meets [[Siduri]], the divine [[Alewife (trade)|Alewife]].{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=171}} At first, she tries to prevent Gilgamesh from entering the garden,{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=171}} and then attempts to persuade him to accept death as inevitable and not journey beyond the waters.{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=171}} When Gilgamesh persists in his quest, she directs him to [[Urshanabi]], the ferryman of the gods, who takes Gilgamesh across the sea to Utnapishtim.{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=171}} When Gilgamesh finally arrives at Utnapishtim's home, Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh that, to become immortal, he must defy sleep.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}} Gilgamesh attempts this, but fails and falls into a seven-day sleep.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}}

Next, Utnapishtim tells him that, even if he cannot obtain immortality, he can restore his youth with a rejuvenating herb.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=172}} Gilgamesh takes the plant, but leaves it on the shore while swimming and a snake steals it, explaining why snakes [[Moulting#In reptiles|shed their skins]].{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=172}} Despondent at this loss, Gilgamesh returns to Uruk,{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}} and shows his city to the ferryman Urshanabi.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}} At this point the continuous narrative ends.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=172}}{{sfn|Tigay|2002|pages=26–27}} Tablet XII is an appendix corresponding to the Sumerian poem of ''Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Netherworld'' describing the loss of the ''pikku'' and ''mikku''.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=172}}{{sfn|Tigay|2002|pages=26–27}}

Numerous elements reveal a lack of [[Continuity (fiction)|continuity]] with the earlier portions of the epic.{{sfn|Tigay|2002|pages=26–27}} At the beginning of Tablet XII, Enkidu is still alive, despite having previously died in Tablet VII,{{sfn|Tigay|2002|pages=26–27}} and Gilgamesh is kind to Ishtar, despite the violent rivalry between them in Tablet VI.{{sfn|Tigay|2002|pages=26–27}} Also, while most of the parts of the epic are free adaptations of their respective Sumerian predecessors,{{sfn|Tigay|2002|page=26}} Tablet XII is a literal, word-for-word translation of the last part of ''Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld'',{{sfn|Tigay|2002|page=26}} and was probably relegated to the end because it did not fit the larger epic narrative.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=172}}{{sfn|Tigay|2002|pages=26–27}} In it, Gilgamesh sees a vision of Enkidu's ghost, who promises to recover the lost items{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|pages=172–173}} and describes to his friend the abysmal condition of the Underworld.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=90}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|pages=172–173}}

===In Mesopotamian art===
[[{{Not a typo|File:The Gilgamesh Dream tablet. From Iraq. Middle Babylonian Period, First Sealand Dynasty, 1732-1460 BCE. Iraq Museum, Baghdad.jpg}}<!-- Do not change the spelling of the file! -->|thumb|The Gilgamesh Dream tablet. From Iraq. Middle Babylonian Period, First Sealand Dynasty, 1732–1460 BC. Iraq Museum, Baghdad. This dream tablet recounts a part of the epic of Gilgamesh in which the hero (Gilgamesh) describes his dreams to his mother (the goddess Ninsun), who interprets them as announcing the arrival of a new friend, who will become his companion]]
Although stories about Gilgamesh were wildly popular throughout ancient Mesopotamia,{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=91}} authentic representations of him in ancient art are uncommon.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=91}} Popular works often identify depictions of a hero with long hair, containing four or six curls, as representations of Gilgamesh,{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=91}} but this identification is known to be incorrect.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=91}} A few genuine ancient Mesopotamian representations of Gilgamesh do exist, however.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=91}} These representations are mostly found on clay plaques and cylinder seals.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=91}} Generally, it is only possible to identify a figure as Gilgamesh if the work clearly depicts a scene from the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'' itself.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=91}} One set of representations of Gilgamesh is found in scenes of two heroes fighting a demonic giant, clearly Humbaba.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=91}} Another set is found in scenes showing a similar pair of heroes confronting a giant winged bull, clearly the Bull of Heaven.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=91}}