Editing Genetically modified organism (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of genetic engineering}}
[[File:Herbert Boyer HD2005 Winthrop Sears Medal.JPG|right|thumb|upright|[[Herbert Boyer]] (pictured) and [[Stanley Norman Cohen|Stanley Cohen]] created the first genetically modified organism in 1973.]]
Humans have [[Domestication|domesticated]] plants and animals since around 12,000 BCE, using [[selective breeding]] or artificial selection (as contrasted with [[natural selection]]).<ref name=Kingsbury>{{cite book | vauthors = Kingsbury N |title=Hybrid: The History and Science of Plant Breeding |date=2009 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-43705-7 }}</ref>{{rp|25}} The process of [[selective breeding]], in which organisms with desired [[Phenotypic trait|traits]] (and thus with the desired [[genes]]) are used to breed the next generation and organisms lacking the trait are not bred, is a precursor to the modern concept of genetic modification.<ref name=Root>{{cite book|title=Domestication|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=WGDYHvOHwmwC|p=1}}|author=Clive Root|year=2007|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Groups}}</ref>{{rp|1}}<ref name=Zohary>{{cite book |title=Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Plants in the Old World|url= {{google books|plainurl=y|id=tc6vr0qzk_4C|p=1}}| vauthors = Zohary D, Hopf M, Weiss E |year=2012|publisher= Oxford University Press}}</ref>{{rp|1}} Various advancements in [[genetics]] allowed humans to directly alter the DNA and therefore genes of organisms. In 1972, [[Paul Berg]] created the first [[recombinant DNA]] molecule when he combined DNA from a monkey virus with that of the [[Lambda phage|lambda virus]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jackson DA, Symons RH, Berg P | title = Biochemical method for inserting new genetic information into DNA of Simian Virus 40: circular SV40 DNA molecules containing lambda phage genes and the galactose operon of Escherichia coli | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 69 | issue = 10 | pages = 2904–9 | date = October 1972 | pmid = 4342968 | pmc = 389671 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.69.10.2904 | bibcode = 1972PNAS...69.2904J | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Sateesh2008">{{cite book| vauthors =  Sateesh MK |title=Bioethics And Biosafety|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=xP9dzbSBTZQC|p=456}}|access-date=27 March 2013|date=25 August 2008|publisher=I. K. International Pvt Ltd|isbn=978-81-906757-0-3|pages=456–}}</ref>

[[Herbert Boyer]] and [[Stanley Norman Cohen|Stanley Cohen]] made the first genetically modified organism in 1973.<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Zhang C, Wohlhueter R, Zhang H |date=2016 |title=Genetically modified foods: A critical review of their promise and problems |journal=Food Science and Human Wellness |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=116–123 |doi=10.1016/j.fshw.2016.04.002 |doi-access=free }}</ref> They took a gene from a bacterium that provided resistance to the antibiotic [[kanamycin]], inserted it into a [[plasmid]] and then induced other bacteria to incorporate the plasmid. The bacteria that had successfully incorporated the plasmid was then able to survive in the presence of kanamycin.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Russo E | title = The birth of biotechnology | journal = Nature | volume = 421 | issue = 6921 | pages = 456–7 | date = January 2003 | pmid = 12540923 | doi = 10.1038/nj6921-456a | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2003Natur.421..456R }}</ref> Boyer and Cohen expressed other genes in bacteria. This included genes from the toad ''[[Xenopus laevis]]'' in 1974, creating the first GMO expressing a gene from an organism of a different [[Kingdom (biology)|kingdom]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Morrow JF, Cohen SN, Chang AC, Boyer HW, Goodman HM, Helling RB | title = Replication and transcription of eukaryotic DNA in Escherichia coli | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 71 | issue = 5 | pages = 1743–7 | date = May 1974 | pmid = 4600264 | pmc = 388315 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.71.5.1743 | bibcode = 1974PNAS...71.1743M | doi-access = free }}</ref>

[[File:Jaenisch 2003 by Sam Ogden.jpg|left|thumb|upright|In 1974, [[Rudolf Jaenisch]] created the first genetically modified animal.]]
In 1974, [[Rudolf Jaenisch]] created a [[transgenic mouse]] by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the world's first transgenic animal.<ref name="Simian virus 40 DNA sequences in DN">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jaenisch R, Mintz B | title = Simian virus 40 DNA sequences in DNA of healthy adult mice derived from preimplantation blastocysts injected with viral DNA | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 71 | issue = 4 | pages = 1250–4 | date = April 1974 | pmid = 4364530 | pmc = 388203 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.71.4.1250 | bibcode = 1974PNAS...71.1250J | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/any-idiot-can-do-it-genome-editor-crispr-could-put-mutant-mice-everyones-reach|title='Any idiot can do it.' Genome editor CRISPR could put mutant mice in everyone's reach|date=2 November 2016|newspaper=Science {{!}} AAAS|access-date=2 December 2016}}</ref> However it took another eight years before transgenic mice were developed that passed the [[transgene]] to their offspring.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gordon JW, Ruddle FH | title = Integration and stable germ line transmission of genes injected into mouse pronuclei | journal = Science | volume = 214 | issue = 4526 | pages = 1244–6 | date = December 1981 | pmid = 6272397 | doi = 10.1126/science.6272397 | bibcode = 1981Sci...214.1244G }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Costantini F, Lacy E | title = Introduction of a rabbit beta-globin gene into the mouse germ line | journal = Nature | volume = 294 | issue = 5836 | pages = 92–4 | date = November 1981 | pmid = 6945481 | doi = 10.1038/294092a0 | bibcode = 1981Natur.294...92C | s2cid = 4371351 }}</ref> Genetically modified mice were created in 1984 that carried cloned [[oncogenes]], predisposing them to developing cancer.<ref name =Hanahan>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hanahan D, Wagner EF, Palmiter RD | title = The origins of oncomice: a history of the first transgenic mice genetically engineered to develop cancer | journal = Genes & Development | volume = 21 | issue = 18 | pages = 2258–70 | date = September 2007 | pmid = 17875663 | doi = 10.1101/gad.1583307 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Mice with [[Gene knockout|genes removed]] (termed a [[knockout mouse]]) were created in 1989. The first transgenic livestock were produced in 1985<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brophy B, Smolenski G, Wheeler T, Wells D, L'Huillier P, Laible G | title = Cloned transgenic cattle produce milk with higher levels of beta-casein and kappa-casein | journal = Nature Biotechnology | volume = 21 | issue = 2 | pages = 157–62 | date = February 2003 | pmid = 12548290 | doi = 10.1038/nbt783 | s2cid = 45925486 }}</ref> and the first animal to synthesize transgenic proteins in their milk were mice in 1987.<ref name="Clark">{{cite journal | vauthors = Clark AJ | title = The mammary gland as a bioreactor: expression, processing, and production of recombinant proteins | journal = Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia | volume = 3 | issue = 3 | pages = 337–50 | date = July 1998 | pmid = 10819519 | doi = 10.1023/a:1018723712996 }}</ref> The mice were engineered to produce human [[tissue plasminogen activator]], a protein involved in breaking down [[blood clots]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gordon K, Lee E, Vitale JA, Smith AE, Westphal H, Hennighausen L | title = Production of human tissue plasminogen activator in transgenic mouse milk. 1987 | journal = Biotechnology | volume = 24 | issue = 11 | pages = 425–8 | year = 1987 | pmid = 1422049 | doi = 10.1038/nbt1187-1183 | s2cid = 3261903 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1233349 }}</ref>

In 1983, the first [[Genetically modified plant|genetically engineered plant]] was developed by [[Michael W. Bevan]], [[Richard B. Flavell]] and [[Mary-Dell Chilton]]. They infected tobacco with ''[[Agrobacterium tumefaciens|Agrobacterium]]'' [[Transformation (genetics)|transformed]] with an antibiotic resistance gene and through [[tissue culture]] techniques were able to grow a new plant containing the resistance gene.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bevan MW, Flavell RB, Chilton MD | title = A chimaeric antibiotic resistance gene as a selectable marker for plant cell transformation. 1983 | journal = Nature | volume = 304 | issue = 5922 | pages = 184 | year = 1983 | doi = 10.1038/304184a0 | bibcode = 1983Natur.304..184B | s2cid = 28713537 | author-link1 = Michael W. Bevan | author-link3 = Mary-Dell Chilton }}</ref> The [[Biolistic Particle Delivery System|gene gun]] was invented in 1987, allowing transformation of plants not susceptible to ''Agrobacterium'' infection.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-384964-9.00003-7 |chapter=Gene Delivery Using Physical Methods |title=Challenges in Delivery of Therapeutic Genomics and Proteomics |pages=83–126 |year=2011 | vauthors = Jinturkar KA, Rathi MN, Misra A |isbn=978-0-12-384964-9 }}</ref> In 2000, [[Vitamin A]]-enriched [[golden rice]] was the first plant developed with increased nutrient value.<ref name="ye2000" />

In 1976, [[Genentech]], the first genetic engineering company was founded by Herbert Boyer and [[Robert A. Swanson|Robert Swanson]]; a year later, the company produced a human protein ([[somatostatin]]) in ''[[E. coli]]''. Genentech announced the production of genetically engineered human [[insulin]] in 1978.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Goeddel DV, Kleid DG, Bolivar F, Heyneker HL, Yansura DG, Crea R, Hirose T, Kraszewski A, Itakura K, Riggs AD | title = Expression in Escherichia coli of chemically synthesized genes for human insulin | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 76 | issue = 1 | pages = 106–10 | date = January 1979 | pmid = 85300 | pmc = 382885 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.76.1.106 | bibcode = 1979PNAS...76..106G | doi-access = free }}</ref> The insulin produced by bacteria, branded [[Humulin]], was approved for release by the [[Food and Drug Administration]] in 1982.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,949646-1,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027011602/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,949646-1,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 October 2011 |title=Artificial Genes |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=15 November 1982 |access-date=17 July 2010}}</ref> In 1988, the first human antibodies were produced in plants.<ref name="antibodies">{{cite journal | vauthors = Horn ME, Woodard SL, Howard JA | title = Plant molecular farming: systems and products | journal = Plant Cell Reports | volume = 22 | issue = 10 | pages = 711–20 | date = May 2004 | pmid = 14997337 | pmc =7079917  | doi = 10.1007/s00299-004-0767-1 | bibcode = 2004PCelR..22..711H }}</ref> In 1987, a strain of ''[[Pseudomonas syringae]]'' became the first genetically modified organism to be released into the environment<ref name="BBC2002">BBC News 14 June 2002 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2045286.stm GM crops: A bitter harvest?]</ref> when a strawberry and potato field in California were sprayed with it.<ref>{{cite news |last=Maugh |first=Thomas H. II |date=9 June 1987 |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-06-09-mn-6024-story.html |title=Altered Bacterium Does Its Job: Frost Failed to Damage Sprayed Test Crop, Company Says |work=[[Los Angeles Times]]}}</ref>

The first [[genetically modified crop]], an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant, was produced in 1982.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fraley RT, Rogers SG, Horsch RB, Sanders PR, Flick JS, Adams SP, Bittner ML, Brand LA, Fink CL, Fry JS, Galluppi GR, Goldberg SB, Hoffmann NL, Woo SC | title = Expression of bacterial genes in plant cells | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 80 | issue = 15 | pages = 4803–7 | date = August 1983 | pmid = 6308651 | pmc = 384133 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.80.15.4803 | bibcode = 1983PNAS...80.4803F | doi-access = free }}</ref> China was the first country to commercialize transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992.<ref name="James1997">{{cite journal|author=James, Clive|year=1997|title=Global Status of Transgenic Crops in 1997|journal=ISAAA Briefs No. 5.|page=31|url=http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/05/download/isaaa-brief-05-1997.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116155014/http://www.isaaa.org/Resources/Publications/briefs/05/download/isaaa-brief-05-1997.pdf |archive-date=2009-01-16 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1994, [[Calgene]] attained approval to commercially release the [[Flavr Savr]] tomato, the first [[genetically modified food]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bruening G, Lyons JM | year = 2000  | title = The case of the FLAVR SAVR tomato | journal = California Agriculture | volume = 54 | issue = 4 | pages = 6–7 | url = http://ucanr.org/repository/CAO/landingpage.cfm?article=ca.v054n04p6&fulltext=yes | doi=10.3733/ca.v054n04p6| doi-broken-date = 1 November 2024 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Also in 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the herbicide [[bromoxynil]], making it the first genetically engineered crop commercialized in Europe.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Transgenic tobacco is European first|date=18 June 1994|author=Debora MacKenzie|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg14219301.100-transgenic-tobacco-is-european-first.html|magazine=[[New Scientist]]}}</ref> An insect resistant Potato was approved for release in the US in 1995,<ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=A0YyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jOYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4631,1776980&dq=bacillus+thuringiensis+potato+1996+approved&hl= Genetically Altered Potato Ok'd For Crops] Lawrence Journal-World. 6 May 1995</ref> and by 1996 approval had been granted to commercially grow 8 transgenic crops and one flower crop (carnation) in 6 countries plus the EU.<ref name="James 1996">{{cite web| vauthors = James C |title=Global Review of the Field Testing and Commercialization of Transgenic Plants: 1986 to 1995|url=http://www.isaaa.org/kc/Publications/pdfs/isaaabriefs/Briefs%201.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616175626/http://isaaa.org/kc/Publications/pdfs/isaaabriefs/Briefs%201.pdf |archive-date=2010-06-16 |url-status=live|publisher=The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications|access-date=17 July 2010|year=1996}}</ref>

In 2010, scientists at the [[J. Craig Venter Institute]] announced that they had created the first synthetic bacterial [[genome]]. They named it [[Synthia]] and it was the world's first [[synthetic life]] form.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gibson DG, Glass JI, Lartigue C, Noskov VN, Chuang RY, Algire MA, Benders GA, Montague MG, Ma L, Moodie MM, Merryman C, Vashee S, Krishnakumar R, Assad-Garcia N, Andrews-Pfannkoch C, Denisova EA, Young L, Qi ZQ, Segall-Shapiro TH, Calvey CH, Parmar PP, Hutchison CA, Smith HO, Venter JC | title = Creation of a bacterial cell controlled by a chemically synthesized genome | journal = Science | volume = 329 | issue = 5987 | pages = 52–6 | date = July 2010 | pmid = 20488990 | doi = 10.1126/science.1190719 | bibcode = 2010Sci...329...52G | s2cid = 7320517 | doi-access =  }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Craig Venter creates synthetic life form | vauthors = Sample I |work=guardian.co.uk |date=20 May 2010 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/may/20/craig-venter-synthetic-life-form |location=London}}</ref>

The first genetically modified animal to be commercialized was the [[GloFish]], a [[Zebrafish|Zebra fish]] with a [[Fluorescent protein|fluorescent gene]] added that allows it to glow in the dark under [[ultraviolet light]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vàzquez-Salat N, Salter B, Smets G, Houdebine LM | title = The current state of GMO governance: are we ready for GM animals? | journal = Biotechnology Advances | volume = 30 | issue = 6 | pages = 1336–43 | date = 1 November 2012 | pmid = 22361646 | doi = 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2012.02.006 | series = Special issue on ACB 2011 }}</ref> It was released to the US market in 2003.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2003/US/11/21/offbeat.glofish.reut/|title=Glowing fish to be first genetically changed pet|date=21 November 2003|publisher=CNN|access-date=25 December 2018|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225130006/http://edition.cnn.com/2003/US/11/21/offbeat.glofish.reut/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2015, [[AquAdvantage salmon]] became the first genetically modified animal to be approved for food use.<ref name=":20">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/20/business/genetically-engineered-salmon-approved-for-consumption.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220102/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/20/business/genetically-engineered-salmon-approved-for-consumption.html |archive-date=2 January 2022 |url-access=limited |url-status=live|title=Genetically Engineered Salmon Approved for Consumption| vauthors = Pollack A |date=19 November 2015|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=27 January 2019|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Approval is for fish raised in Panama and sold in the US.<ref name=":20" /> The salmon were transformed with a [[growth hormone]]-regulating gene from a [[Chinook salmon|Pacific Chinook salmon]] and a promoter from an [[ocean pout]] enabling it to grow year-round instead of only during spring and summer.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.aquabounty.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Risk_Assessment_Mitigation_of_AAS-Oct2010.pdf|title = Risk Assessment and Mitigation of AquAdvantage Salmon|date = October 2010|publisher = ISB News Report|vauthors = Bodnar A|access-date = 22 January 2016|archive-date = 8 March 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210308125138/https://aquabounty.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Risk_Assessment_Mitigation_of_AAS-Oct2010.pdf|url-status = dead}}</ref>